ࡱ > { | } ~ ] K} bjbj++ 8 I'bI'bW + 8 $ Z @% - - - - / 2 3 $ Z Q |4 / / |4 |4 - - H Q ? ? ? |4 - - ? |4 ? ? ~ H - 09_ .8 " Ȧ X ̿ g 0 P8 X p \ |4 |4 ? |4 |4 |4 |4 |4 ; . |4 |4 |4 |4 |4 |4 |4 |4 |4 |4 |4 |4 |4 |4 |4 |4 B J : Exploring the influence and practical development of coaches psychosocial behaviors in strength and conditioning
Christoph Szedlak
University of Southampton
Bettina Callary
Cape Breton University
Matthew J Smith
University of Chichester
Author Note
Christoph Szedlak, Department of Sport and Wellbeing, University of Southampton
Matthew J. Smith, Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences University of Chichester
BettinaCallary, Department of Community Studies, Sport and Physical Activity Leadership (Coaching) Cape Breton University P.O.Box 5300, 1250 Grand Lake Road, Sydney, Nova Scotia, B1P 6L2, Canada
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Christoph Szedlak, Department of Sport and Wellbeing, University of Southampton, Student Services, Sports Training & Performance Centre, Wide Lane Sports Grounds, Eastleigh, Southampton, SO50 5PE
Contact: c.szedlak@soton.ac.uk
Key words: coach development, psychosocial behaviors, reflection, stories, mentorship, internshipAbstract
Research suggests that psychological characteristics and social behaviors (e.g. cognitive, personal, behavioral and ethical competencies) contribute to the development of coaching effectiveness and as such should not be neglected by strength and conditioning (S&C) coaches. This review examines the current literature on the influence of psychosocial characteristics and behaviors of the S&C coach on elite athlete development. Additionally, this review provides practical suggestions and guidelines to coach developers and coach practitioners to develop such psychosocial behaviors using constructivist learning theories in relation to reflection, stories, mentorships, and internships.
Introduction
Sports coaching has been described as an activity, which occurs between people, and as such is a psychosocial practice ADDIN EN.CITE Cassidy2015642(19, 54)6426426Cassidy, Tania GJones, Robyn LPotrac, Paul AUnderstanding sports coaching: the pedagogical, social and cultural foundations of coaching practice2015Routledge1135102627Kirk20106586586585Kirk, DavidTowards a socio-pedagogy of sports coaching20100702030546(19, 54). Based on a large body of coaching research, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_45" \o "Ct, 2009 #380" ADDIN EN.CITE Ct200981Ct and Gilbert (26)818117Ct, JeanGilbert, WadeAn integrative definition of coaching effectiveness and expertiseInternational Journal of Sports Science & CoachingInternational Journal of Sports Science & Coaching307-32343200920091747-9541WOS:000275016400001<Go to ISI>://WOS:000275016400001http://multi-science.metapress.com/content/t4pl5t2u6g1h28g3/fulltext.pdf10.1260/174795409789623892Ct and Gilbert (26) HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_45" \o "Ct, 2009 #380" provided an integrated definition of effective coaching, as The consistent application of integrated professional, interpersonal, and intrapersonal knowledge to improve athletes competence, confidence, connection, and character in specific coaching contexts (p. 316). As such, effective coaching incorporates psychosocial practice, which requires the coach to fulfil a variety of roles, including educating, training, guiding, and providing mental support to athletes ADDIN EN.CITE ICCE2013623(46)6236236ICCEInternational Sports Coaching Framework2013Champaign, Illinois, United StatesHuman Kinetics(46). The International Sports Coaching Framework, 1.2 ADDIN EN.CITE ICCE2013623(46)6236236ICCEInternational Sports Coaching Framework2013Champaign, Illinois, United StatesHuman Kinetics(46) further categorizes these coaching roles into these six primary functions: setting the vision and strategy, shaping the environment, building relationships, conducting practices, reading and reacting to the field, and learning and reflecting. These functions are to guide and provide coaches with tools, knowledge and opportunities they need to develop themselves and become more effective. Notably, elite level coaches are encouraged to emphasize positive interactions and overall development of athletes rather than simply the win-loss record ADDIN EN.CITE Henry2013589(33, 44)58958917Henry, IanAthlete development, athlete rights and athlete welfare: a European Union perspectiveThe International Journal of the History of SportThe International Journal of the History of Sport356-37330420130952-3367ECSU20125905905905ECSUEuropean Commission Sport UnitEU guidelines on dual career of athletes2012BrusselsEuropean Commission(33, 44). As a result, the strength and conditioning (S&C) coach has the responsibility to consider the personal, emotional, cultural and social identity of the athlete ADDIN EN.CITE Cassidy2015642(19)6426426Cassidy, Tania GJones, Robyn LPotrac, Paul AUnderstanding sports coaching: the pedagogical, social and cultural foundations of coaching practice2015Routledge1135102627(19).
The National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) reflects this psychosocial emphasis on coaching in their mission statement, declaring that The profession involves the combined competencies of sport/exercise science, administration, management, teaching and coaching ADDIN EN.CITE NSCA2017643(78)64364312NSCANational Strength and Conditioning Association Mission Statement2017https://www.nsca.com/about-us/(78). Coaching includes the application of psychosocial behaviors and characteristics, which enable the coach to effectively teach and apply technical knowledge based on sport and exercise science. However, using ADDIN EN.CITE Cheetham1996644Cheetham and Chivers (21)64464417Cheetham, GrahamChivers, GeoffTowards a holistic model of professional competenceJournal of European industrial trainingJournal of European industrial training20-3020519960309-0590Cheetham and Chivers (21) framework to map professional competencies, a recent analysis examining the content of national accreditation bodies annual conferences ADDIN EN.CITE Handcock2017645(43)64564510Handcock, PhilCassidy, TaniaBurrows, LisetteGearity, BrianWhen the student is ready, the teacher will appear: the conflicted strength and conditioning coach11th ICCE Global Coach Conference2017LiverpoolInternational Council for Coaching Excellence(43) has highlighted that the majority of the content focused on the development of professional, scientific and functional knowledge to enhance the athletes physical capabilities (see Table 1). Additionally, higher education S&C providers have also adopted this science-led or evidence-based focus ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (18, 29, 43, 58, 62). As such, research in functional knowledge is abundant in S&C, while research in psychosocial coaching practice have been neglected. Contrary to the mission statements of the accrediting bodies ADDIN EN.CITE Papathomas2016631e.g.`, (e.g., 79)6316315Papathomas, AnthonySmith, Brett MSparkes, Andrew CNarrative InquiryRoutledge handbook of qualitative research in sport and exercise2016London and New YorkTaylor & Francis1317646916(e.g., 79), S&C coach education has not provided many opportunities for coaches to develop cognitive competencies (e.g., conceptualization and knowledge transfer skills), as well as personal, behavioral and ethical competencies (e.g., controlling emotions and listening skills, self-regulation and environmental sensitivity). For the sake of this review, we define psychosocial behaviors as those that enable the coach to positively and effectively interact with the athlete (interpersonal) and behaviors that allow the coach to reflect and monitor their own progress, thoughts and feelings, strengths and weaknesses (intrapersonal). In summary, while the technical aspects of knowing what and how have been extensively covered in S&C coach education, the understanding of coaches effectiveness through developing psychosocial behaviors and characteristics is sparse ADDIN EN.CITE Quinn1996646(86, 87)64664617Quinn, James BrianAnderson, PhilipFinkelstein, SydneyLeveraging intellectThe Academy of Management ExecutiveThe Academy of Management Executive7-2710319961558-9080Radcliffe201361461461417Radcliffe, Jon NComfort, PaulFawcett, TomThe perception of psychology and the frequency of psychological strategies used by strength and conditioning practitionersThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning ResearchThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research1136-114627420131064-8011(86, 87).
Given the need for development of psychosocial behaviors in S&C coaching, another possible connection to develop psychosocial behaviors within coaching may well be the coachs current understanding of his/her level of emotional intelligence (EI), which is proposed to be the ability to perceive, use, understand, and manage emotions within oneself and in others ADDIN EN.CITE Salovey1990647(88, 89)64764717Salovey, PeterMayer, John DEmotional intelligenceImagination, cognition and personalityImagination, cognition and personality185-2119319900276-2366Salovey20026486486485Salovey, PeterMayer, John DCaruso, DKeyes, Corey LMLopez, Shane JThe positive psychology of emotional intelligenceHandbook of positive psychologyHandbook of positive psychology159-1712002LondonOxford University Press(88, 89). To date much of the research examining EI has taken place outside of the sporting domain and instead has focused on business ADDIN EN.CITE Zeidner2004649e.g.`,(e.g.,107)64964917Zeidner, MosheMatthews, GeraldRoberts, Richard DEmotional intelligence in the workplace: A critical reviewApplied PsychologyApplied Psychology371-39953320041464-0597(e.g.,107), health ADDIN EN.CITE Pau2003650e.g.`, (e.g., 81)65065017Pau, AKCroucher, RayEmotional intelligence and perceived stress in dental undergraduatesJournal of dental educationJournal of dental education1023-102867920030022-0337(e.g., 81), and academic environments ADDIN EN.CITE Parker2006651e.g.`, (e.g., 80)65165117Parker, James DAHogan, Marjorie JEastabrook, Jennifer MOke, AmberWood, Laura MEmotional intelligence and student retention: Predicting the successful transition from high school to universityPersonality and Individual differencesPersonality and Individual Differences1329-133641720060191-8869(e.g., 80). Little research has been conducted regarding EI within the sporting domain. Thelwell and colleagues ADDIN EN.CITE Thelwell2008652(95)65265217Thelwell, Richard CLane, Andrew MWeston, Neil JVGreenlees, Iain AExamining relationship between emotional intelligence and coaching efficacyInternational Journal of Sport and Exercise PsychologyInternational Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology224-23562008(95) highlighted that coaching efficacy is highly related to coaches appraisal and regulation of their own emotions. Further, Chan and colleagues ADDIN EN.CITE Chan2011653(20)65365317Chan, Jonathan TMallett, Clifford JThe value of emotional intelligence for high performance coachingInternational Journal of Sports Science & CoachingInternational Journal of Sports Science & Coaching315-3286320111747-9541(20) used a vignette of a high performance coach to describe how the coach applied elements of EI to a situation where a player thought he let his team down. In response to the vignette, the coach had to identify the players and his own emotions, and then understand how these emotions impacted the team. Linked with EI, the ICCE framework ADDIN EN.CITE ICCE2013623(46)6236236ICCEInternational Sports Coaching Framework2013Champaign, Illinois, United StatesHuman Kinetics(46) proposes that coaches should develop their own interpersonal knowledge/skills, as they need to detect the emotional states of their athletes, and manage (their own/their athletes) emotions. As such, this research infers the need for the development of psychosocial behaviors in coaching which includes S&C. For example, if S&C coaches are unable to appraise themselves (developing intrapersonal knowledge), then it is unlikely that they would be able to reflect on how best to relate to and/or communicate with their athletes where conflict resolution may be required (applying interpersonal knowledge). Should S&C coaches not be able to regulate their own emotions, the development of their athletes may be compromised due to the possible lack of clarity and appropriateness of communication.
Table 1. Using professional competencies to map S&C coaching competencies in 2017CompetenciesNSCAUKSCAASCAKnowledge~5%~10%~13%Functional~90%~90%~80%Cognitive~5%-~3%Personal & behavioral--~3%Values & ethical---
Only a small number of studies have addressed the application of psychosocial behaviors and characteristics within S&C coaching, identifying areas such as being able to counsel ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (41, 71, 85), providing social support ADDIN EN.CITE Brooks2000230(14, 68)23023017Brooks, Dana DZiatz, DanielJohnson, BonneyHollander, DanLeadership behavior and job responsibilities of NCAA dvision 1A strength and conditioning coachesThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning ResearchThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research483-49214420001064-8011Magnusen201025625625617Magnusen, Marshall JDifferences in strength and conditioning coach self-perception of leadership style behaviors at the National Basketball Association, Division IA, and Division II levelsThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning ResearchThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research1440-145024620101064-8011(14, 68), being able to motivate ADDIN EN.CITE Massey200274(72)747417Massey, C. D.Maneval, M. W.Phillips, J.Vincent, J.White, G.Zoeller, B.The University of West Alabama, Livingston 35470, USA.An analysis of teaching and coaching behaviors of elite strength and conditioning coachesThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning ResearchThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research456-60163Adult*BehaviorCommunicationFootballHumansMaleMiddle AgedPhysical Education and Training/*methods*Weight Lifting2002Aug1064-8011 (Print)
1064-801112173963Nlmeng(72) and being an effective leader ADDIN EN.CITE Voight2014414(99, 100)41441417Voight, MikeLeadership education and development for strength and conditioning professionals and team leadersStrength & Conditioning JournalStrength & Conditioning Journal52-6236120141524-1602Voight201765465465417Voight, MikeHickey, AnnPiper, MichaelThe Leadership Techniques and Practices of Elite Collegiate Strength and ConditioningSport JournalSport Journal20171543-9518(99, 100) as being important. More recently, ADDIN EN.CITE Tod2012258Tod, Bond and Lavallee (97)25825817Tod, David ABond, Kath ALavallee, DavidProfessional development themes in strength and conditioning coachesThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning ResearchThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research851-86026320121064-8011Tod201225825825817Tod, David ABond, Kath ALavallee, DavidProfessional development themes in strength and conditioning coachesThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning ResearchThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research851-86026320121064-8011Tod, Bond and Lavallee (97) explored professional development themes of experienced S&C coaches including how their psychosocial behaviors have changed throughout their careers. Tod and colleagues found that more experienced S&C coaches demonstrate an increased flexibility and ability to tailor their athletes programs by being less prescriptive and technique focused and more athlete-centered. Furthermore, the results highlight that elite coaches show a greater emphasis on enhancing athlete engagement and the quality of relationships between themselves and their athletes, by developing a good rapport based on trust and respect. Additionally, experienced S&C coaches engaged in a higher level of self-reflective practice, an essential component of learning from experience. As a result, Tod et al.s ADDIN EN.CITE Tod2012258(97)25825817Tod, David ABond, Kath ALavallee, DavidProfessional development themes in strength and conditioning coachesThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning ResearchThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research851-86026320121064-8011(97) research highlighted the contribution of psychosocial behaviors such as self-reflection, building rapport and flexibility in becoming a more experienced and effective coach. ADDIN EN.CITE Szedlak2015374Szedlak, Smith, Day and Greenlees (94)37437417Szedlak, ChrisSmith, Matthew J.Day, Melissa CGreenlees, Ian AExamining athletes perceptions of effective behaviours in strength and conditioning coachingInternational Journal of Sports Science & CoachingInternational Journal of Sports Science & Coaching967-9841052015Szedlak, Smith, Day and Greenlees (94) aimed to build upon the research of Tod and colleagues by examining elite athletes perceptions of which behaviors are effective in their S&C coaches. The results provide an initial structure that identified psychosocial behaviors build, maintain and enhance the relationship as well as the underlying values of the coach as fundamental to creating an effective coaching environment.
While the above studies note the importance of developing psychosocial behaviors and characteristics in S&C coaches, it was still unclear how coaches psychosocial behaviors impact their athletes. Recent research by Szedlak, Smith, Day, and Callary ADDIN EN.CITE Szedlak2017336(93)33633617Szedlak, ChrisSmith, Matthew J.Day, MelissaCallary, BettinaUsing vignettes to analyse potential influences of effective strength and conditioning coaching on athlete development Under ReviewUnder review2017(93) aimed to address this gap. They utilised a novel methodological approach as framed by Barter and Renold ADDIN EN.CITE Barter2000293(5)29329317Barter, ChristineRenold, Emma'I wanna tell you a story': Exploring the application of vignettes in qualitative research with children and young peopleInternational Journal of Social Research Methodology307-3233420001364-5579(5), in which the researchers constructed stories (also known as vignettes) from their research that pertained to best practice meaningful experiences of athletes with their S&C coaches. After thematically analyzing the responses from ten elite athletes including World and Olympic champions, three main dimensions were identified. What influences the athlete, including coaches being caring, knowledgeable, committed and understanding of their role. These characteristics initiated, created and maintained the athletes trust and respect in the coach. As a result, they influenced the athletes cognition and affect, including enhancing athletes motivation, confidence, gratitude and enjoyment and the athletesbehavior, enhancing actions such as extra effort and self-regulatory processes (see Figure 1). The athletes noted that these impacts not only helped them develop their physical potential but further enabled the athletes to develop their character to become a constructive and caring member of their relevant sporting team and a productive member of society ADDIN EN.CITE Ct2007385(25, 91)38538517Ct, JeanGilbert, WCoaching and officiating for junior sport participants20071740130928Shields200238438438417Shields, DBredemeier, BLPower, FCCharacter development and childrens sportChildren and youth in sport: A biopsychosocial perspective537-55922002(25, 91). The most striking result however is that the participants focused almost entirely on psychosocial aspects and values of the coach such as trust (see Figure 1) and not on the coaches technical competencies, which further strengthens the need to provide the S&C coach with learning experiences to foster and develop such psychosocial characteristics ADDIN EN.CITE Jayaram2017337(49)3373375Jayaram, ShubhaMusau, RoseSoft Skills: What They Are and How to Foster ThemBridging the Skills Gap101-1222017Springer(49).
Figure 1. Process of how S&C coachs behaviours and characteristics are perceived to influence athlete outcome (reproduced with permission from Szedlak et al., 2017)
How do coaches learn and develop, exploring constructivist learning theory
In the following sections, we review the literature that has examined psychosocial behaviors and how coaches learn to coach, in order to provide implications for how coaches can potentially develop psychosocial behaviors. Coaching is characterised by being an idiosyncratic learning process ADDIN EN.CITE Werthner2009622(103)62262217Werthner, PennyTrudel, PierreInvestigating the idiosyncratic learning paths of elite Canadian coachesInternational Journal of Sports Science & CoachingInternational Journal of Sports Science & Coaching433-4494320091747-9541(103), meaning that there are many ways to learn and be an effective coach ADDIN EN.CITE Callary2012328(17)32832817Callary, BettinaWerthner, PennyTrudel, PierreHow meaningful episodic experiences influence the process of becoming an experienced coachQualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and HealthQualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health420-4384320122159-676X(17). Research examining the lived and fluid process of coach development is based on a constructivist learning paradigm, which emphasizes human development throughout life and via personal perceptions of experiences ADDIN EN.CITE Baumgartner2006655(6)65565517Baumgartner, Lisa MCaffarella, RSMerriam, Sharon BLearning in adulthood: A comprehensive guideSan Francisco: Jossey BassSan Francisco: Jossey Bass2006(6). Jarvis ADDIN EN.CITE Jarvis2007501(47, 48)5015016Jarvis, PeterGlobalization, lifelong learning and the learning society: Sociological perspectives2007Routledge1134254776Jarvis20095025025026Jarvis, PeterLearning to be a person in society2009Routledge0415419034(47, 48) argues that learning is a lifelong process and that any experience is influenced by a persons perceptions of the past and has an influence on future experiences. As a result, a person is transformed cognitively, emotionally and practically. Callary, Werthner and Trudel ADDIN EN.CITE Callary201231(17)313117Callary, BettinaWerthner, PennyTrudel, PierreHow meaningful episodic experiences influence the process of becoming an experienced coachQualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health420-4384320122159-676X(17) note that becoming a more experienced coach is characterised by meaningful personal experiences allowing the coach to engage through thoughts, feelings and actions from which the coach is able to learn. These meaningful experiences enable the coach to subjectively judge how new material of learning relates to past knowledge gained from previous experiences. This learning process is based on the coachs subjective perception of environment, goals, motivation and readiness to learn, emotions and abilities ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (17, 36).
In relation to S&C coaching, knowledge and practice is constructed through experiences and thus it is important to consider effective theories within this constructivist paradigm, such as reflective practice ADDIN EN.CITE Moon2004489(74-76)4894896Moon, Jennifer AA handbook of reflective and experiential learning: Theory and practice2004Psychology Press0415335167Moon20134554554556Moon, Jennifer AReflection in learning and professional development: Theory and practice2013Routledge1136763635Moon20015825825826Moon, JenniferShort courses & workshops: Improving the impact of learning, training & professional development2001Psychology Press0749432667(74-76), communities of practice ADDIN EN.CITE Lave1991599(64, 77)5995996Lave, JeanWenger, EtienneSituated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation1991Cambridge university press0521423740Murray201460160160117Murray, Melissa AZakrajsek, Rebecca AGearity, Brian TDeveloping effective internships in strength and conditioning: A community of practice approachStrength & Conditioning JournalStrength & Conditioning Journal35-4036120141524-1602(64, 77) , narrative ADDIN EN.CITE Brockmeier2012349(3, 11, 13)34934917Brockmeier, Jens20 Narrative Scenarios: Toward Culturally Thick Notion of NarrativeThe Oxford handbook of culture and psychology43920120199930635Brockbank20075515515516Brockbank, AnneMcGill, IanFacilitating reflective learning in higher education2007McGraw-Hill Education (UK)0335220916Armour20145915915916Armour, KathleenPedagogical cases in physical education and youth sport2014Routledge1134453698(3, 11, 13) and situated learning ADDIN EN.CITE Kirk2003606(55, 56)60660617Kirk, DavidKinchin, GarySituated learning as a theoretical framework for sport educationEuropean physical education reviewEuropean physical education review221-2359320031356-336XKirk199860860860817Kirk, DavidMacdonald, DouneSituated learning in physical educationJournal of Teaching in Physical educationJournal of Teaching in Physical education376-38717319980273-5024(55, 56) and their utility to provide exposure to meaningful experiences to develop effective psychosocial behaviors in S&C ADDIN EN.CITE Mills2016596(73)59659617Mills, Joseph PGearity, BrianToward a Sociology of Strength and Conditioning CoachingStrength & Conditioning JournalStrength & Conditioning Journal102-10538320161524-1602(73). Although research has utilised constructivist approaches to learning or applying theory within the sporting context ADDIN EN.CITE Chan2011653e.g.`, (e.g., 20)65365317Chan, Jonathan TMallett, Clifford JThe value of emotional intelligence for high performance coachingInternational Journal of Sports Science & CoachingInternational Journal of Sports Science & Coaching315-3286320111747-9541(e.g., 20), using such an a approach to develop psychosocial behaviors has so far been neglected. As such, the aim of the paper is to explore how coaches learn psychosocial behaviors and characteristics through constructivist theories.
Practically: How to enhance learning from coaching experience?
In this section, we examine various constructivist learning processes in the current coaching literature and outline practical ways that theories inform these processes of reflection, different forms of narratives, mentorship and internship, to allow S&C coaches to learn from their experiences in order to develop psychosocial behaviors to effectively coach their athletes.
Reflection
Reflection underpins the process of learning from experiences ADDIN EN.CITE Knowles2001587(59, 61)58758717Knowles, ZoeGilbourne, DavidBorrie, AndyNevill, AlanDeveloping the reflective sports coach: A study exploring the processes of reflective practice within a higher education coaching programmeReflective practiceReflective Practice185-2072220011462-3943Knowles200644944944917Knowles, ZoTyler, GarethGilbourne, DavidEubank, MartinReflecting on reflection: exploring the practice of sports coaching graduatesReflective Practice163-1797220061462-3943(59, 61) by minimizing the knowledge to action gap ADDIN EN.CITE Graham2006424(40)42442417Graham, Ian DLogan, JoHarrison, Margaret BStraus, Sharon ETetroe, JacquelineCaswell, WendaRobinson, NicoleLost in knowledge translation: time for a map?Journal of continuing education in the health professionsJournal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions13-2426120061554-558X(40). The process of reflection can be described as meaningful experience made up of thoughts about what the learner already knows and brings to the learning situation ADDIN EN.CITE Moon2004489(75)4894896Moon, Jennifer AA handbook of reflective and experiential learning: Theory and practice2004Psychology Press0415335167(75). Reflection enhances learning by promoting internal dialogue of the meaningfulness and relevance of a situation. As a result the coach generates thoughts, feelings and behaviors that may initiate change in coaching practice ADDIN EN.CITE Saylor1990625(24, 90)62562517Saylor, Coleen RReflection and professional education: Art, science, and competencyNurse EducatorNurse Educator8-1115219900363-3624Cleary200167667667617Cleary, Timothy JZimmerman, Barry JSelf-regulation differences during athletic practice by experts, non-experts, and novicesJournal of Applied Sport PsychologyJournal of Applied Sport Psychology185-20613220011041-3200(24, 90). Thus, S&C coaches employing critical reflection enable more engagement with some of the moral, ethical and societal issues likely to be intertwined with their practice ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (42, 63, 73). As such, self-reflection is a strategy for the S&C coach to explore. Reflective practice is not novel in sports coaching and has been widely encouraged ADDIN EN.CITE Gilbourne2013454e.g.`, (e.g., 39)45445417Gilbourne, DMarshall, PKnowles, ZReflective practice in sports coaching: Thoughts on processes and pedagogyAn introduction to sports coaching: Connecting theory to practice3-112013(e.g., 39). However, research within S&C has highlighted that effective reflective practice is limited to more experienced coaches ADDIN EN.CITE Tod2012258(97)25825817Tod, David ABond, Kath ALavallee, DavidProfessional development themes in strength and conditioning coachesThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning ResearchThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research851-86026320121064-8011(97). When encouraging the development of psychosocial behaviors and characteristics of the S&C coach, no matter what level of experience, the S&C coach education provider should offer guidance of how to become a reflective practitioner to ensure an effective lifelong learning process.
Moons view of reflective practice underpins the idiosyncratic learning process in which the coach gives meaning to the experiences within his or her lifetime ADDIN EN.CITE Moon2004489(74-76)4894896Moon, Jennifer AA handbook of reflective and experiential learning: Theory and practice2004Psychology Press0415335167Moon20134554554556Moon, Jennifer AReflection in learning and professional development: Theory and practice2013Routledge1136763635Moon20015825825826Moon, JenniferShort courses & workshops: Improving the impact of learning, training & professional development2001Psychology Press0749432667(74-76). Moon takes a constructivist approach to learning focusing on the activities of learners, her view of learning is about changing ones frame of reference toward what is known at any particular time by connecting to previous experiences, since prior experiences guide our perceptions, responses or interpretations in the present ADDIN EN.CITE Moon2004489(75)4894896Moon, Jennifer AA handbook of reflective and experiential learning: Theory and practice2004Psychology Press0415335167(75). Moon argues that reflection is involved in meaningful learning when the learner, or the S&C coach, evaluates and modifies his or her knowledge. Reflection occurs when there is new material of learning but may also occur when the person is re-organizing knowledge and emotional orientation to achieve further insights ADDIN EN.CITE Moon2004489(75)4894896Moon, Jennifer AA handbook of reflective and experiential learning: Theory and practice2004Psychology Press0415335167(75). Within this process, reflection can be seen as its own learning situation, developing new ideas to meet the demand of a novel experience ADDIN EN.CITE Moon2013455(76)4554556Moon, Jennifer AReflection in learning and professional development: Theory and practice2013Routledge1136763635(76). Thus, learning about psychosocial behaviors is an outcome of reflection and it is important to explore how the S&C coach can effectively engage with this process.
There are various practical ways to enhance reflective practice. Firstly, the coach should take time to learn how to reflect on psychosocial behaviors within their own coaching process. Reflection is an important learning strategy linked to active coaching and formal education ADDIN EN.CITE Callary2012328(17, 67)32832817Callary, BettinaWerthner, PennyTrudel, PierreHow meaningful episodic experiences influence the process of becoming an experienced coachQualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and HealthQualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health420-4384320122159-676XLyle201062662662617Lyle, JCoaches' decision making: A naturalistic decision making AnalysisSports coaching: Professionalisation and practiceSports coaching: Professionalisation and practice27-412010(17, 67). Moon ADDIN EN.CITE Moon2004489(75)4894896Moon, Jennifer AA handbook of reflective and experiential learning: Theory and practice2004Psychology Press0415335167(75) notes that moving from surface learning (e.g., memorizing, noticing and making sense of experience) to deep learning (e.g.,, searching for additional understanding and meaning, making meaning, and working with meaning) requires reflection. In general, coaches who have never before engaged in purposeful reflection tend to start by reflecting more descriptively (e.g., this session was good because the athlete did all of the reps and sets and had good technique throughout). However, critical reflection includes expressing both positive and negative personal emotions and affections ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (16, 59, 97). In deepening reflection, there are shifts from descriptive to reflective accounts, from no questions to asking questions of oneself and to answering those questions, and from self-questioning to challenging ones own ideas and as a result the coach develops greater effectiveness of psychosocial behaviors. Deep reflection involves recognition of psychosocial behaviors such as emotions and understanding how to handle those increasingly effectively, standing back from the event and taking others views into account, and reviewing ones own reflective process ADDIN EN.CITE Moon2004489(75)4894896Moon, Jennifer AA handbook of reflective and experiential learning: Theory and practice2004Psychology Press0415335167(75). For example:
The S&C coach (Jess) may reflect on a session with an athlete (Susan), as follows: Susan initially struggled with a particular complex exercise. However, after being reassured by Jess, Susans trust in Jesss judgement helped her to overcome her struggle and perform well. Jess could evaluate the session with regards to understanding how that trust was developed, and subsequently, how that trust influenced Susans performance. Jess could ask herself why Susan engaged well in the session. Perhaps it was because Jess was particularly motivating, was feeling positive and committed to the session, but also allowed Susan more autonomy, which affected her trust in Jess and her enjoyment within the session. As a result, Jess can identify thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that relate to achieving a specific goal such as enhancing the relationship with the athlete ADDIN EN.CITE Cleary2001676(24)67667617Cleary, Timothy JZimmerman, Barry JSelf-regulation differences during athletic practice by experts, non-experts, and novicesJournal of Applied Sport PsychologyJournal of Applied Sport Psychology185-20613220011041-3200(24). Jess could then modify her approach by planning to use and exhibit behaviors that continue to develop trust with Susan. At the end of the week Jess could then set extra time aside to reflect on her daily reflections by reading her journal entries for that week as if they were written by a colleague, and asking herself questions about how effectively she had met her goal of developing trust with Susan. In this way, Jess engages in deeper reflection for the following week as she challenges her own ideas and views of how to develop trust.
Initial reflective practice may need to be guided or shared by either or both an experienced mentor and a semi-structured journal with questions aiming to draw the coach into deeper levels of reflection ADDIN EN.CITE Knowles2012516(60)51651617Knowles, ZoeKatz, JonathanGilbourne, DavidReflective practice within elite consultancy: Diary extracts and further discussion on a personal and elusive processThe Sport Psychologist454-4692632012(60). Thus, a coach looking to engage in the reflective process may benefit from being directed by a few basic questions from a framework, focusing on psychosocial behaviors, as underpinned by Moons view of learning from reflection ADDIN EN.CITE Moon2013455(76)4554556Moon, Jennifer AReflection in learning and professional development: Theory and practice2013Routledge1136763635(76). The following points are reflective questions aimed to stimulate thought about how reflection can help an S&C coach develop psychosocial behaviors:
When coaching my athlete, what relational, social and ethical elements did I identify to be valuable and impactful?
Why are these important to me and why are they important to my athlete?
What emotions did I feel throughout the sessions? Why are those emotions important?
What have I learned from identifying these psychosocial behaviors? Has the way I think and/or coach been influenced by these psychosocial behaviors If not, should I consider changes for next week?
What would be the first step in making changes?
Narratives, cases and vignettes
Narrative learning theory refers to a psychosocial approach that focuses on stories. Human beings are meaning makers who, in order to interpret, show, and direct life, configure and constitute their experiences using narratives that their social and cultural world have passed down ADDIN EN.CITE Brockmeier2012350(13)35035017Brockmeier, Jens20 Narrative Scenarios: Toward Culturally Thick Notion of NarrativeThe Oxford handbook of culture and psychology43920120199930635(13). Narratives allow us to make sense of the complexity of life experiences and shape what becomes experience ADDIN EN.CITE Frank2010345(35)3453456Frank, Arthur WLetting stories breathe: A socio-narratology2010University of Chicago Press0226260143(35). As such narratives shape human conduct; guiding what we pay attention to, affecting what we think, how we behave and what we imagine is possible ADDIN EN.CITE Brockmeier2012349(13)34934917Brockmeier, Jens20 Narrative Scenarios: Toward Culturally Thick Notion of NarrativeThe Oxford handbook of culture and psychology43920120199930635(13). Thus, stories can become powerful motivators for change by prompting action ADDIN EN.CITE Andrews2014351(2, 12)3513516Andrews, MollyNarrative imagination and everyday life2014Oxford University Press019981239XBrockmeier200935235235217Brockmeier, JensReaching for Meaning Human Agency and the Narrative ImaginationTheory & Psychology213-23319220090959-3543(2, 12). Narratives can therefore help S&C coaches to engage with scenarios that highlight psychosocial behaviors.
Narratives in forms of pedagogical cases or case studies, vignettes, or stories are examples reflecting this process and are considered a powerful professional development tool ADDIN EN.CITE Clandinin2001588(22, 23)5885885Clandinin, D JeanClark, C MForewordTalking Shop82001New YorkTeachers CollgeClandinin200759259259217Clandinin, D JeanPushor, DebbieOrr, Anne MurrayNavigating sites for narrative inquiryJournal of teacher educationJournal of teacher education21-3558120070022-4871(22, 23). They can show the complexities of coaching practice and provide an opportunity to reveal and explore the feelings and emotions of experiences within these narratives from multiple perspectives ADDIN EN.CITE Potrac2013590(84)59059017Potrac, PJones, RLPurdy, LNelson, LMarshall, PTowards an emotional understanding of coaching: A suggested research agendaRoutledge handbook of sports coachingRoutledge handbook of sports coaching235-2462013(84). ADDIN EN.CITE Armour2014591Armour (3)5915916Armour, KathleenPedagogical cases in physical education and youth sport2014Routledge1134453698Armour (3) describes a pedagogical case as a mechanism for incorporating ideas from multiple (sub)disciplines, using the personal voice and reflecting the emotions of coaching practice. As an example, Gearity and Metzer ADDIN EN.CITE Gearity2017593(37)59359317Gearity, Brian TMetzger, Lynett HendersonIntersectionality, microaggressions, and microaffirmations: Towards a cultural praxis of sport coachingSociology of Sport JournalSociology of Sport Journal1-4120170741-1235(37) constructed evocative stories taken from the first authors experience as an elite S&C coach to promote discussion about microaggressions and microaffirmations in sport coaching. Various studies have utilized the narrative methodology ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (36, 66, 70). The NSCA has adopted the use of stories on their certification exams, encouraging reflection by providing a case example, which allows S&C coaches to decide what they would do, why and how.
Vignettes, also known as stories, present hypothetical scenarios, framed within stories for individuals to read, listen or watch and then respond to ADDIN EN.CITE Braun2013290(9)2902906Braun, VirginiaClarke, VictoriaSuccessful qualitative research: A practical guide for beginners2013Sage1847875815(9). ADDIN EN.CITE Smith2015402Smith, Tomasone, Latimer-Cheung and Martin Ginis (92)40240217Smith, BrettTomasone, Jennifer RLatimer-Cheung, Amy EMartin Ginis, Kathleen ANarrative as a knowledge translation tool for facilitating impact: Translating physical activity knowledge to disabled people and health professionalsHealth Psychology30334420151433820617Smith, Tomasone, Latimer-Cheung and Martin Ginis (92) found that vignettes have the ability to teach, remind, reinvigorate and reassure, and have the ability to initiate behavior change. Vignettes allow the S&C coach to engage more fully in considering the psychosocial elements of the coaching process by identifying with a story; the end result is that the coach has learned from the meaning and purpose of the vignette and feels motivated to continue learning and coaching ADDIN EN.CITE Papathomas2016631(79)6316315Papathomas, AnthonySmith, Brett MSparkes, Andrew CNarrative InquiryRoutledge handbook of qualitative research in sport and exercise2016London and New YorkTaylor & Francis1317646916(79). As a result, vignettes are a powerful coach development tool. Thus, a coachs responses to vignettes can be considered a social action in its own right ADDIN EN.CITE Jenkins2010292(50)29229217Jenkins, NicholasBloor, MichaelFischer, JanBerney, LeeNeale, JoannePutting it in context: The use of vignettes in qualitative interviewingQualitative ResearchQualitative research175-19810220101468-7941(50). By responding to the vignette, the coach may connect relevant or meaningful information from the vignette with past experiences, encouraging reflection on experience. For example, the S&C coach could be presented with a vignette highlighting the importance of challenging the athletes with high expectations for effort in a coaching session. Applying this constructivist approach, Szedlak and colleagues ADDIN EN.CITE Szedlak2017336(93)33633617Szedlak, ChrisSmith, Matthew J.Day, MelissaCallary, BettinaUsing vignettes to analyse potential influences of effective strength and conditioning coaching on athlete development Under ReviewUnder review2017(93), utilized vignettes as a way for S&C coaches to learn from best practice scenarios and to connect those to their own coaching. The vignettes were constructed by grounding them in previous research, as per ADDIN EN.CITE Perrier2015357Perrier, Smith and Latimer-Cheung (82)35735717Perrier, Marie-JoseSmith, Brett Latimer-Cheung, Amy EStories that move? Peer athlete mentors' responses to mentee disability and sport narrativesPsychology of Sport and ExercisePsychology of sport and exercise60-671820151469-0292Perrier, Smith and Latimer-Cheung (82) recommendations. The following vignette is an example of one that S&C coaches viewed as part of a coach education initiative within Szedlak and colleagues (95) research. The vignette specifically highlights psychosocial behaviors such as the coachs (Petes) high expectations of his athletes, trust and respect, and the impact of the coachs behaviors on the athlete such as increased enjoyment and gratitude. To ensure and increase authenticity of the vignette, athlete quotes were utilised from previous qualitative research ADDIN EN.CITE Szedlak2015374(94)37437417Szedlak, ChrisSmith, Matthew J.Day, Melissa CGreenlees, Ian AExamining athletes perceptions of effective behaviours in strength and conditioning coachingInternational Journal of Sports Science & CoachingInternational Journal of Sports Science & Coaching967-9841052015(94) and corresponded to themes in Figure 1. The quotes are italicized and the themes are listed in brackets.
The S&C coach started the session and let Alex and Taylor continue by themselves as he was called away for a quick meeting with his director of sport, which gave them time to chat about their progress.
Alex: I feel really happy with my progress and I really trust and respect Pete. The program he has set is challenging but has really worked for me. I could have this set up until I retire, I guess I have known him for a long time and we have a good relationship now. For me it is a pleasure to give 100% every time. [coachs high expectations, trust and respect, athletes gratitude]
Taylor: I agree. Sometimes it is tough but I know that he understands what he can contribute to our performance. For me that is really important. I really appreciate the fact that he understands what he can contribute, for example he makes the training session more fun in an effective and efficient way. Because of that I am always a lot happier in myself and I train a lot harder, and as a result, I want to impress him and do well for him. [athletes enjoyment]
Presented with such a scenario, the S&C coaches were encouraged to consider and reflect upon similar instances in their own practice. As such, the S&C coach might start to consider how these psychosocial behaviors, such as high expectations, could be incorporated in their coaching. To further enhance this process, the S&C coach might utilize an ongoing reflective journal, to allow them to reflect on how to change coaching practice and monitor whether that change has been effective in developing appropriate athlete outcomes ADDIN EN.CITE Brannigan2016622(8)62262217Brannigan, JoelInternship: how these should work in strength and conditioningProfessional Strength and Conditioning Professional Strength and Conditioning28-3040402016(8).
Initial research has highlighted the preference of a diversity of formats of vignettes, such as written, video and audio, with video being preferred above the others ADDIN EN.CITE Smith2015402(92)40240217Smith, BrettTomasone, Jennifer RLatimer-Cheung, Amy EMartin Ginis, Kathleen ANarrative as a knowledge translation tool for facilitating impact: Translating physical activity knowledge to disabled people and health professionalsHealth Psychology30334420151433820617(92). Practically, to create an effective video story or pedagogical case is time consuming and requires dedication, however the impacts on the S&C coachs development outweigh this initial difficulty and should not deter coach developers from creating such educational scenarios. Coach developers could also film interactions of effective S&C coaches with their athletes, whose athletes trust and respect them, and who display the psychosocial behaviors discussed above (e.g., caring, knowledgeable, committed, motivating, understanding of the S&C coachs role, prepared, and good communication). These could then be used as an educational tool. Once created, these stories or cases could be made available at online platforms or blogs and could be used by a wide range of S&C coaches. In summary, employing narrative learning strategies through stories and pedagogical cases to disseminate information engages the coach with meaningful episodes to learn and develop their coaching practice.
Mentorship
Mentoring has been widely utilized in business ADDIN EN.CITE Klasen2012601(57)6016016Klasen, NadineClutterbuck, DavidImplementing mentoring schemes2012Routledge1136396608(57), nursing ADDIN EN.CITE Hughes2004602(45)60260217Hughes, Suzanne JThe mentoring role of the personal tutor in theFitness for practice'curriculum: an all Wales approachNurse Education in PracticeNurse Education in Practice271-2784420041471-5953(45) and education ADDIN EN.CITE Zeek2001600(106)60060017Zeek, CatherineFoote, MarthaWalker, CaroleTeacher stories and transactional inquiry: Hearing the voices of mentor teachersJournal of Teacher EducationJournal of Teacher Education377-38552520010022-4871(106). However, despite its use, no consistent definition of mentoring or description of mentoring roles or functions has been found ADDIN EN.CITE Jones2009335(53)33533517Jones, Robyn LHarris, RichardMiles, AndrewMentoring in sports coaching: A review of the literaturePhysical Education and Sport PedagogyPhysical Education and Sport Pedagogy267-28414320091740-8989(53). In spite of this lack of clarity, mentoring seems to be gaining acceptance as a means of developing high-quality practitioners in various fields including coaching ADDIN EN.CITE Armour2004607(4, 52)6076076Armour, Kathleen MJones, RobynPotrac, PaulSports coaching cultures: From practice to theory2004Routledge113433401XJones200360660660617Jones, RLArmour, KMPotrac, PaulConstructing expert knowledge: A case study of a top-level professional soccer coachSport, education and societySport, Education and Society213-2298220031357-3322(4, 52). A mentorship relationship can be referred to as a relationship in which a person of greater experience teaches, guides and develops a novice ADDIN EN.CITE Alleman1984608(1)60860817Alleman, ElizabethCochran, JohnDoverspike, JamesNewman, IsadoreEnriching mentoring relationshipsPersonnel & Guidance JournalPersonnel & Guidance Journal329-33262619840031-5737(1). With the relationship built on trust and respect ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (10, 34, 51, 96), the mentors provide psychosocial support ADDIN EN.CITE Eby2005614(32)61461417Eby, Lillian TLockwood, AngieProtgs and mentors reactions to participating in formal mentoring programs: A qualitative investigationJournal of vocational behaviorJournal of vocational behavior441-45867320050001-8791(32), guidance, counsel, facilitation ADDIN EN.CITE Wray2000615(104)61561513Wray, MJParsloe, ECoaching and mentoring: practical methods to improve learning2000Kogan Page. ISBN(104) and act as a role model, promoting role socialization, encouraging independence and self-confidence ADDIN EN.CITE Busen1999616(15)61661617Busen, Nancy HEngebretson, JoanMentoring in advanced practice nursing: The use of metaphor in concept explorationThe Internet Journal of Advanced Nursing PracticeThe Internet Journal of Advanced Nursing Practice10221999(15). What this means to the S&C coach is that he/she will be able to develop essential psychosocial behaviors (see Figure 1) as the mentorship relationship places importance on listening, understanding and questioning, in contrast to telling, directing and restricting ADDIN EN.CITE Wray2000615(104)61561513Wray, MJParsloe, ECoaching and mentoring: practical methods to improve learning2000Kogan Page. ISBN(104).
Closely linked to mentorships is the concept of Community of Practice (CoP), which underpins a constructivist learning approach from both knowledge and experience ADDIN EN.CITE Lave1991599(64)5995996Lave, JeanWenger, EtienneSituated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation1991Cambridge university press0521423740(64). CoPs are defined as people who share concern, or a passion about a topic and who deepen their knowledge in this area by interaction on an ongoing basis ADDIN EN.CITE Wenger2002598(102)59859817Wenger, EtienneMcDermott, RichardSnyder, William MCultivating community of practiceCambridgeCambridge42002(102). Terms that are fundamentally important to CoPs include participants mutual engagement or the interaction between participants, joint enterprise of the collective goal such as improvement in coaching practice and shared repertoire, which contains an understanding of shared terms and skills ADDIN EN.CITE Wenger2002598(102)59859817Wenger, EtienneMcDermott, RichardSnyder, William MCultivating community of practiceCambridgeCambridge42002(102). As coaches participate in a CoP by meeting together to discuss coaching practice, knowledge about effective psychosocial elements is developed based on behaviors, meanings and beliefs shared between them (shared repertoire) and result in the development of their coaching skills (joint enterprise). In contrast, common practice in personal S&C coach development is actively seeking advice from more experienced coaches aiming to learn from their experience by adopting the apprenticeship model of mentorship ADDIN EN.CITE Magnusen2012617(69)61761717Magnusen, Marshall JPetersen, JeffreyApprenticeship and mentoring relationships in strength and conditioning: The importance of physical and cognitive skill developmentStrength & Conditioning JournalStrength & Conditioning Journal67-7234420121524-1602(69). Although this is an effective way for new coaches to learn ADDIN EN.CITE Bloom1998480(7)48048017Bloom, Gordon ADurand-Bush, NatalieSchinke, Robert JSalmela, John HThe importance of mentoring in the development of coaches and athletesInternational Journal of Sport Psychology267-2812919980047-0767(7), it is generally an uncritical copy of a coaching approach. Learning differs from case to case depending on the environment, program, and mentoring coach and it pre-supposes that the experienced coach is an infallible practitioner, suggesting that novice coaches should become clones of the mentor ADDIN EN.CITE Dorgo2009417(30, 38)41741717Dorgo, SandorUnfolding the practical knowledge of an expert strength and conditioning coachInternational Journal of Sports Science and Coaching17-304120091747-9541Geen20026186186186Geen, ArthurA Practical Guide to Mentoring: Developing Initial Teacher Training and Education in Schools2002UWIC1902724550(30, 38). Its limitations lies in a simple reproduction of existing coaching culture and practice, a repetitive one-dimensional cycle, as opposed to a more progressive and developmental method such as utilizing the community of practice approach to enhance best practice ADDIN EN.CITE Cushion2003619(27)61961917Cushion, Christopher JArmour, Kathy MJones, Robyn LCoach education and continuing professional development: Experience and learning to coachQuestQuest215-23055320030033-6297(27).
Previous research has examined the utility and effectiveness of CoPs in sports coaching, however this has yet to be fully utilized in S&C ADDIN EN.CITE Wright2007603(98, 105)60360317Wright, TrevorTrudel, PierreCulver, DianeLearning how to coach: the different learning situations reported by youth ice hockey coachesPhysical education and sport pedagogyPhysical education and sport pedagogy127-14412220071740-8989Trudel20046026026025Trudel, PierreGilbert, Wade DCommunities of practice as an approach to foster ice hockey coach developmentSafety in ice hockey: Fourth volume2004ASTM International(98, 105). Thus, S&C mentorship programs should embrace a more formal structure that aligns the possible outcomes for mentee and mentor at stages and competencies associated with their long-term development ADDIN EN.CITE ICCE2013623(46)6236236ICCEInternational Sports Coaching Framework2013Champaign, Illinois, United StatesHuman Kinetics(46). Further, the structured mentorship programs should focus not only on technical and physiological aspects of S&C coaching, but on relational aspects, such as how to build trust and respect with athletes, how to show a caring attitude, how to prepare and communicate with athletes, how to show commitment or high expectations, and how to become aware of, and understand, the S&C coachs role ADDIN EN.CITE Szedlak2017336(93)33633617Szedlak, ChrisSmith, Matthew J.Day, MelissaCallary, BettinaUsing vignettes to analyse potential influences of effective strength and conditioning coaching on athlete development Under ReviewUnder review2017(93). For example:
The task for the CoP might involve S&C coaches assessing their relationships and interactions each with one specific athlete during the training session. The S&C coaches would consider what problems they faced during the interaction, and how they could develop a deeper relationship. After the training session, the coaches would engage in the facilitated CoP by describing and problematizing their relationship with the particular athlete. As a result, the S&C coaches would highlight possible changes in their behavior to develop psychosocial behaviors such as showing empathy, compassion, being encouraging and supportive that enhance the relationship with their athletes.
A guided CoP approach, as outlined by Murray and colleagues ADDIN EN.CITE Murray2014601(77)60160117Murray, Melissa AZakrajsek, Rebecca AGearity, Brian TDeveloping effective internships in strength and conditioning: A community of practice approachStrength & Conditioning JournalStrength & Conditioning Journal35-4036120141524-1602(77) over a four month period, would provide the group of S&C coaches with a structured approach in developing effective coaching including psychosocial behaviors through learning and reflecting on relevant and meaningful experiences ADDIN EN.CITE Pitney2004620(83)62062017Pitney, William AEhlers, Greg GA grounded theory study of the mentoring process involved with undergraduate athletic training studentsJournal of Athletic TrainingJournal of Athletic Training34439420041062-6050(83).
Internship
Situated learning theory may be useful for S&C coaches to develop social and psychological behaviors through participating in internship programs ADDIN EN.CITE Dyson2004605(31)60560517Dyson, BenGriffin, Linda LHastie, PeterSport education, tactical games, and cooperative learning: Theoretical and pedagogical considerationsQuestQuest226-24056220040033-6297(31). The premise behind this theory is that the social, physical and cultural context of S&C coaches have a significant influence on what is learned and how learning takes place ADDIN EN.CITE Kirk2003606(55)60660617Kirk, DavidKinchin, GarySituated learning as a theoretical framework for sport educationEuropean physical education reviewEuropean physical education review221-2359320031356-336X(55). Central to the situated learning theory is the process of legitimate peripheral participation ADDIN EN.CITE Lave2002383(65)38338317Lave, JeanWenger, EtienneLegitimate peripheral participation in communities of practiceSupporting lifelong learningSupporting lifelong learning111-12612002(65). Thus, as coaches engage in internships, they gain knowledge of the context of S&C coaching and move from having a marginal understanding of the context (as a novice coach) towards full participation and integration in the context. In internships, learning happens as a result of encouraging the coach to fully participate in activity toward a specific goal such as developing effective coaching influenced by the interactions of people, activity, knowledge and the social context ADDIN EN.CITE Lave1991599(64)5995996Lave, JeanWenger, EtienneSituated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation1991Cambridge university press0521423740(64). The S&C coach becomes a full participant of a collective group who together contribute to the development of athletes in a particular context ADDIN EN.CITE Kirk1998608(56)60860817Kirk, DavidMacdonald, DouneSituated learning in physical educationJournal of Teaching in Physical educationJournal of Teaching in Physical education376-38717319980273-5024(56). As a result, situated learning through internships provides the coach with meaningful experience to explore the impact and development of psychosocial behaviors in S&C coaching ADDIN EN.CITE Murray2014601(77)60160117Murray, Melissa AZakrajsek, Rebecca AGearity, Brian TDeveloping effective internships in strength and conditioning: A community of practice approachStrength & Conditioning JournalStrength & Conditioning Journal35-4036120141524-1602(77).
As the popularity of S&C has been marked by vast growth over the last ten years, demand for employment opportunities has also significantly increased. Consequently, teams and organizations have considered internships to recruit, develop and assess future S&C coaches. However, due to the lack of guidance and driven by the need of the employer, internships could be exploitive in nature. As internships facilitate mentorship, it becomes essential for this arrangement to be about the employers desire to develop the person and their employability rather than to exploit a cheap employment option. Practically, a more structured recruitment and employment process should be adopted to enhance the situated learning process ADDIN EN.CITE Murray2014601(77)60160117Murray, Melissa AZakrajsek, Rebecca AGearity, Brian TDeveloping effective internships in strength and conditioning: A community of practice approachStrength & Conditioning JournalStrength & Conditioning Journal35-4036120141524-1602(77), reflecting the companys values and employees continual personal development process. Internships should focus not only on developing the S&C coaches knowledge of S&C, but also on developing their psychosocial behaviors by allowing the development of a community of practitioners deeply engaged in sharing their knowledge and experience ADDIN EN.CITE Wenger1998604(101)6046046Wenger, EtienneCommunities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity1998Cambridge university press0521663636(101) and setting challenging and personal goals that they could not achieve alone ADDIN EN.CITE DfES2005609(28)6096096DfESMentoring and coaching CPD capacity building projetc 2004-2005: Draft national framework for mentoring and coaching2005LondonDfES(28). Developing skills, such as being motivating and inspiring, as well as developing effective communication and listening, require the coach to experience and learn from a wide range of different athletes scenarios ADDIN EN.CITE Murray2014601(77)60160117Murray, Melissa AZakrajsek, Rebecca AGearity, Brian TDeveloping effective internships in strength and conditioning: A community of practice approachStrength & Conditioning JournalStrength & Conditioning Journal35-4036120141524-1602(77). For example:
A specific goal could be to develop motivational skills with a variety of athletes working in different contexts. Together with their mentors, the S&C coaches would discuss what went well and why ADDIN EN.CITE Brannigan2016622(8)62262217Brannigan, JoelInternship: how these should work in strength and conditioningProfessional Strength and Conditioning Professional Strength and Conditioning28-3040402016(8). They could subsequently develop specific motivational strategies that are effective for each situation.
Conclusion
In summary, this review highlighted the importance of psychosocial coaching behaviors and characteristics and their impact on athletes development and provided practical examples of how to develop these psychosocial behaviors using a constructivist learning approach. The importance of cognitive, personal, behavioral, and ethical coach development and its impact on the athlete needs more attention in the applied setting and should be brought to the attention of the S&C coaching community. Practically, annual conferences should include more content on how to develop psychosocial aspects; this could include presentations or workshops to enable S&C coaches to see the value of engaging in some of the practical learning theories outlined in this review.
References
ADDIN EN.REFLIST 1. Alleman E, Cochran J, Doverspike J, and Newman I. Enriching mentoring relationships. Persl Guid J 62: 329-332, 1984.
2. Andrews M. Narrative Imagination and Everyday Life. New York, NY:Oxford University Press, 1-32 2014.
3. Armour K. Pedagogical Cases in Physical Education and Youth Sport. New York, NY: Routledge, 6-21, 2014.
4. Armour KM, Jones R, and Potrac P. Sports Coaching Cultures: From Practice to Theory. New York, NY:Routledge, 94-169, 2004.
5. Barter C and Renold E. 'I wanna tell you a story': Exploring the application of vignettes in qualitative research with children and young people. Int Journal Soc Resh Methodol 3: 307-323, 2000.
6. Baumgartner LM, Caffarella R, and Merriam SB. Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass, 5-26, 2006.
7. Bloom GA, Durand-Bush N, Schinke RJ, and Salmela JH. The importance of mentoring in the development of coaches and athletes. Int J Sport Psychol 29: 267-281, 1998.
8. Brannigan J. Internship: how these should work in strength and conditioning. Prof Strength Cond 40: 28-30, 2016.
9. Braun V and Clarke V. Successful QualitativeRresearch: A practical Guide for Beginners. London, UK:Sage, 19-40, 2013.
1 0 . B r i n s o n J a n d K o t t l e r J . C r o s s C u l t u r a l M e n t o r i n g i n C o u n s e l o r E d u c a t i o n : A S t r a t e g y f o r R e t a i n i n g M i n o r i t y F a c u l t y . C o u n s E d u c S u p e r v 3 2 : 2 4 1 - 2 5 3 , 1 9 9 3 .
1 1 . B r o c k b a n k A a n d M c G i l l I . F a c i l i t a t i n g R e f l e c t i v e L e a r n i n g i n H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n . L o n o d n , U K : M c G raw-Hill Education, 109-205, 2007.
12. Brockmeier J. Reaching for meaning human agency and the narrative imagination. Theory Psychol 19: 213-233, 2009.
13. Brockmeier J. 20 Narrative Scenarios: Toward culturally thick notion of narrative. In: The Oxford Handbook of Culture and Psychology. Valsiner, J, ed London:Oxford, Oxford University Press, 439-460, 2012.
14. Brooks DD, Ziatz D, Johnson B, and Hollander D. Leadership behavior and job responsibilities of NCAA dvision 1A strength and conditioning coaches. J Strength Cond Res 14: 483-492, 2000.
15. Busen NH and Engebretson J. Mentoring in advanced practice nursing: The use of metaphor in concept exploration. Int J Ad Nurs Pract 2: 10, 1999.
16. Callary B, Werthner P, and Trudel P. Shaping the way five women coaches develop: Their primary and secondary socialization. J Coach Educ 4: 76-96, 2011.
17. Callary B, Werthner P, and Trudel P. How meaningful episodic experiences influence the process of becoming an experienced coach. Qual Res Sport Exerc Health 4: 420-438, 2012.
18. Cassidy T, Handcock P, Burrows L, and Gearity B. Starting a Conversation:Exploring the Pedagogical, Social and Cultural Foundations of Strength and Conditioning Coaching. In: 11th ICCE Global Coach Conference, Liverpool, UK, 31 July-2 August, 2017.
19. Cassidy TG, Jones RL, and Potrac PA. Understanding Sports Coaching: the Pedagogical, Social and Cultural Foundations of Coaching Practice. New York, NY:Routledge, 10-15, 2015.
20. Chan JT and Mallett CJ. The value of emotional intelligence for high performance coaching. Int J Sports Sci Coach 6: 315-328, 2011.
21. Cheetham G and Chivers G. Towards a holistic model of professional competence. J Eur Ind Train 20: 20-30, 1996.
22. Clandinin DJ. Foreword, in: Talking Shop. Clark, CM ed. New York, NY: Teachers Collge, 8, 2001..
23. Clandinin DJ, Pushor D, and Orr AM. Navigating sites for narrative inquiry. J Teach Educ 58: 21-35, 2007.
24. Cleary TJ and Zimmerman BJ. Self-regulation differences during athletic practice by experts, non-experts, and novices. J Appl Sport Psychol 13: 185-206, 2001.
25. Ct J and Gilbert W. Coaching and officiating for junior sport participants. In: Junior Sport Matters: Briefing Papers for Australian JuniorSsport S Hooper, D Mcdonald, M Phillips, eds. Belconnen, Australia: Australian Sports Commission, 49-60, 2007.
26. Ct J and Gilbert W. An integrative definition of coaching effectiveness and expertise. Int J Sports Sci Coach 4: 307-323, 2009.
27. Cushion CJ, Armour KM, and Jones RL. Coach education and continuing professional development: Experience and learning to coach. Quest 55: 215-230, 2003.
28. DfES. Mentoring and Coaching CPD Capacity Building Project 2004-2005: Draft National Framework for Mentoring and Coaching. London: DfES, 1-5 2005.
29. Dooman CS, Titlebaum PJ, and DeMarco Jr GM. More weight on the bar: Being a strength and conditioning coach today. Strength Cond J 20: 31-34, 1998.
30. Dorgo S. Unfolding the practical knowledge of an expert strength and conditioning coach. Int J Sports Sci Coach 4: 17-30, 2009.
31. Dyson B, Griffin LL, and Hastie P. Sport education, tactical games, and cooperative learning: Theoretical and pedagogical considerations. Quest 56: 226-240, 2004.
32. Eby LT and Lockwood A. Protgs and mentors reactions to participating in formal mentoring programs: A qualitative investigation. J Vocat Behav 67: 441-458, 2005.
33. ECSU. EU guidelines on dual career of athletes. London, UK: ECS Unit, Brussels: European Commission, 4-8, 2012.
34. Feldman DC. Toxic mentors or toxic protgs? A critical re-examination of dysfunctional mentoring. Hum Resour Mange R 9: 247-278, 1999.
35. Frank AW. Letting stories breathe: A socio-narratology. Chicago, Illinois:University of Chicago Press, 20-45, 2010.
36. Gearity BT, Callary B, and Fulmer P. Learning to coach: A qualitative case study of Phillip Fulmer. J Coach Educ 6: 65-86, 2013.
37. Gearity BT and Metzger LH. Intersectionality, microaggressions, and microaffirmations: Towards a cultural praxis of sport coaching. Sociol Sport J 34: 1-41, 2017.
38. Geen A. A Practical Guide to Mentoring: Developing Initial Teacher Training and Education in Schools. Cardiff, UK: UWIC Press, 1-20, 2002.
39. Gilbourne D, Marshall P, and Knowles Z. Reflective practice in sports coaching: thoughts on processes and pedagogy. In An Introduction to Sports Coaching: Connecting Theory to Practice. Jones, RL, Kingston, K ed London, UK: Routledge, 3-11, 2013.
40. Graham ID, Logan J, Harrison MB, Straus SE, Tetroe J, Caswell W, and Robinson N. Lost in knowledge translation: time for a map? J Contin Educ Health Prof 26: 13-24, 2006.
41. Haggerty L. A profile of strength and conditioning coaches at national collegiate athletic association division II and III member institutions (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). East Tennessee State University, 39-48, 2005.
42. Handcock P and Cassidy T. Reflective practice for rugby union strength and conditioning coaches. Strength Cond J 36: 41-45, 2014.
43. Handcock P, Cassidy T, Burrows L, and Gearity B. When the student is ready, the teacher will appear: the conflicted strength and conditioning coach. In: 11th ICCE Global Coach Conference, Liverpool, UK, 31 July - 2 August, 2017..
44. Henry I. Athlete development, athlete rights and athlete welfare: a European Union perspective. Int J Hist Sport 30: 356-373, 2013.
45. Hughes SJ. The mentoring role of the personal tutor in theFitness for practice'curriculum: an all Wales approach. Nurse Educ Pract 4: 271-278, 2004.
46. ICCE. International Sports Coaching Framework. Champaign, Illinois, United States: Human Kinetics, 13-18, 2013.
47. Jarvis P. Globalization, Lifelong Learning and the Learning Society: Sociological Perspectives. New York, NY:Routledge, 1-20, 2007.
48. Jarvis P. Learning to be a Person in Society. New York, UK:Routledge, 1-19, 2009.
49. Jayaram S and Musau R. Soft Skills: What They Are and How to Foster Them. In: Bridging the Skills Gap. Tulgan, B, ed New Jersey, Canada: Jossey-Bass, 101-122, 2017.
50. Jenkins N, Bloor M, Fischer J, Berney L, and Neale J. Putting it in context: The use of v i g n e t t e s i n q u a l i t a t i v e i n t e r v i e w i n g . Q u a l R e s 1 0 : 1 7 5 - 1 9 8 , 2 0 1 0 .
5 1 . J o h n s o n B a i l e y J a n d C e r v e r o R M . M e n t o r i n g i n b l a c k a n d w h i t e : t h e i n t r i c a c i e s o f c r o s s c u l t u r a l m e n t o r i n g . M e n t T u t : P a r t n L e a r n 1 2 : 7 - 2 1 , 2 0 0 4 .
5 2 . J o n e s R , A r m o u r K , a n d P o t r a c P . Constructing expert knowledge: A case study of a top-level professional soccer coach. Sport Educ Soc 8: 213-229, 2003.
53. Jones RL, Harris R, and Miles A. Mentoring in sports coaching: A review of the literature. Phys Educ Sport Peda 14: 267-284, 2009.
54. Kirk D. owards a socio-pedagogy of sports coaching. In. Sport Coaching: Professionalisation and Practice. Lyle, and J., Cushion, C, Edinburgh, UK: Elsevier, 165-176, 2010.
55. Kirk D and Kinchin G. Situated learning as a theoretical framework for sport education. Eur Phys Educ Rev 9: 221-235, 2003.
56. Kirk D and Macdonald D. Situated learning in physical education. J Teach Phys Educ 17: 376-387, 1998.
57. Klasen N and Clutterbuck D. Implementing Mentoring Schemes. New York, NY: Routledge, 169-187 2012.
58. Kleiner DM. Strength and conditioning education for the 21st century. Strength Cond J 21: 7, 1999.
59. Knowles Z, Gilbourne D, Borrie A, and Nevill A. Developing the reflective sports coach: A study exploring the processes of reflective practice within a higher education coaching programme. Ref Prac 2: 185-207, 2001.
60. Knowles Z, Katz J, and Gilbourne D. Reflective practice within elite consultancy: Diary extracts and further discussion on a personal and elusive process. Sport Psychol 26: 454-469, 2012.
61. Knowles Z, Tyler G, Gilbourne D, and Eubank M. Reflecting on reflection: exploring the practice of sports coaching graduates. Ref Prac 7: 163-179, 2006.
62. Kontor K. EDITORIAL: Defining a profession. Strength Cond J 11: 75-75, 1989.
63. Kuklick CR and Gearity BT. A Review of Reflective Practice and Its Application for the Football Strength and Conditioning Coach. Strength Cond J 37: 43-51, 2015.
64. Lave J and Wenger E. Situated learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 27-58,1991.
65. Lave J and Wenger E. Legitimate peripheral participation in communities of practice. Supp Lifelong Learn 1: 111-126, 2002.
66. Lewis CL and Fragala-Pinkham MA. Effects of aerobic conditioning and strength training on a child with Down syndrome: a case study. Pediatr Phys Ther 17: 30-36, 2005.
67. Lyle J. Coaches' decision making: A naturalistic decision making Analysis. In. Sport Coaching: Professionalisation and Practice. Lyle, and J., Cushion, C, Edinburgh, UK: Elsevier, 27-42, 2010.
68. Magnusen MJ. Differences in strength and conditioning coach self-perception of leadership style behaviors at the National Basketball Association, Division IA, and Division II levels. J Strength Cond Res 24: 1440-1450, 2010.
69. Magnusen MJ and Petersen J. Apprenticeship and mentoring relationships in strength and conditioning: The importance of physical and cognitive skill development. Strength Cond J 34: 67-72, 2012.
70. Marques MC, Van Den Tillaar R, Vescovi JD, and Gonzlez-Badillo JJ. Changes in strength and power performance in elite senior female professional volleyball players during the in-season: a case study. J Strength Cond Res 22: 1147-1155, 2008.
71. Martinez DM. Study of the key determining factors for the NCAA division I head strength and conditioning coach. J Strength Cond Res 18: 5-18, 2004.
72. Massey CD, Maneval MW, Phillips J, Vincent J, White G, and Zoeller B. An analysis of teaching and coaching behaviors of elite strength and conditioning coaches. J Strength Cond Res 16: 456-460, 2002.
73. Mills JP and Gearity B. Toward a Sociology of Strength and Conditioning Coaching. Strength Cond J 38: 102-105, 2016.
74. Moon J. Short courses & workshops: Improving the Impact of Learning, Training & Professional Development. New York, NY: Psychology Press, 30-55, 2001.
75. Moon JA. A Handbook of Reflective and Experiential Learning: Theory and Practice. New York, NY: Psychology Press, 71-78 2004.
76. Moon JA. Reflection in Learning and Professional Development: Theory and Practice. New York, NY: Routledge, 91-164, 2013.
77. Murray MA, Zakrajsek RA, and Gearity BT. Developing effective internships in strength and conditioning: A community of practice approach. Strength Cond J 36: 35-40, 2014.
78. HYPERLINK "https://www.nsca.com/about-us/" https://www.nsca.com/about-us/.
79. Papathomas A. Narrative inquiry. In: Routledge Handbook of Qualitative Research in Sport and Exercise. Smith, BM and Sparkes, AD eds. London and New York: Taylor & Francis, 37-48, 2016.
80. Parker JD, Hogan MJ, Eastabrook JM, Oke A, and Wood LM. Emotional intelligence and student retention: Predicting the successful transition from high school to university. Pers Individ Dif 41: 1329-1336, 2006.
81. Pau A and Croucher R. Emotional intelligence and perceived stress in dental undergraduates. J Dent Educ 67: 1023-1028, 2003.
82. Perrier M-J, Smith B, and Latimer-Cheung AE. Stories that move? Peer athlete mentors' responses to mentee disability and sport narratives. Psychol Sport Exerc 18: 60-67, 2015.
83. Pitney WA and Ehlers GG. A grounded theory study of the mentoring process involved with undergraduate athletic training students. J Athl Trai 39: 344, 2004.
84. Potrac P, Jones R, Purdy L, Nelson L, and Marshall P. Towards an emotional understanding of coaching: A suggested research agenda. In Routledge Handbook of Sports Coaching. Potrac, P; Gilbert, W and Denison, J ed. New York, NY: Routledge, 235-246, 2013.
85. Pullo FM. A profile of NCAA division I strength and conditioning coaches. J Strength Cond Res 6: 55-62, 1992.
86. Quinn JB, Anderson P, and Finkelstein S. Leveraging intellect. Acad Manag Exec 10: 7-27, 1996.
87. Radcliffe JN, Comfort P, and Fawcett T. The perception of psychology and the frequency of psychological strategies used by strength and conditioning practitioners. J Strength Cond Res 27: 1136-1146, 2013.
88. Salovey P and Mayer JD. Emotional intelligence. Imagin Cogn Pers 9: 185-211, 1990.
89. Salovey P, Mayer JD, and Caruso D. T The positive psychology of emotional intelligence, in: Handbook of Positive Psychology. Keyes, CL, Lopez, SJ, ed. London: Oxford University Press,159-171, 2002.
90. Saylor CR. Reflection and professional education: Art, science, and competency. Nurse Educ 15: 8-11, 1990.
91. Shields D, Bredemeier B, and Power F. Character development and childrens sport. In Children and Youth in Sport: A Biopsychosocial Perspective. Smoll, FL and Smith, RE, ed. London: Oxford University Press, 537-559, 2002.
92. Smith B, Tomasone JR, Latimer-Cheung AE, and Martin Ginis KA. Narrative as a knowledge translation tool for facilitating impact: Translating physical activity knowledge to disabled people and health professionals. Health Psychol 34: 303, 2015.
93. Szedlak C, Smith MJ, Day M, and Callary B. Using vignettes to analyse potential influences of effective strength and conditioning coaching on athlete development The Sports Psychol - Under review, 2017.
94. Szedlak C, Smith MJ, Day MC, and Greenlees IA. Examining athletes perceptions of effective behaviours in strength and conditioning coaching. Int J Sports Sci Coach 10: 967-984, 2015.
95. Thelwell RC, Lane AM, Weston NJ, and Greenlees IA. Examining relationship between emotional intelligence and coaching efficacy. Int J Sport Exerc Psychol 6: 224-235, 2008.
96. Thomas DA. The truth about mentoring minorities. Race matters. Harvard Business Rev 79: 98-107, 168, 2001.
97. Tod DA, Bond KA, and Lavallee D. Professional development themes in strength and conditioning coaches. J Strength Cond Res 26: 851-860, 2012.
98. Trudel P and Gilbert WD. Communities of practice as an approach to foster ice hockey coach development. In: Safety in Ice Hockey: Fourth Volume. Pearsall, D and Ashare, A, ed. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International, 167-179, 2004.
99. Voight M. Leadership education and development for strength and conditioning professionals and team leaders. Strength Cond J 36: 52-62, 2014.
100. Voight M, Hickey A, and Piper M. The leadership techniques and practices of elite collegiate strength and conditioning. Sport J, 2017.
101. Wenger E. Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 30-55, 1998.
102. Wenger E, McDermott R, and Snyder WM. Cultivating Community of Practice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 4, 2002.
103. Werthner P and Trudel P. Investigating the idiosyncratic learning paths of elite Canadian coaches. Int J Sports Sci Coach 4: 433-449, 2009.
104. Wray M and Parsloe E. Coaching and Mentoring: Practical Methods to Improve Learning. London, UK: Kogan Page. 75-108, 2000.
105. Wright T, Trudel P, and Culver D. Learning how to coach: the different learning situations reported by youth ice hockey coaches. Phys Education Sport Peda 12: 127-144, 2007.
& ' 4 5 6 = > L U X f q r ڡڎ~mfR? $h@ hC CJ OJ PJ QJ ^J aJ 'h@ hC 5CJ OJ PJ QJ ^J aJ hU h] hU h] CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ h" CJ OJ PJ QJ ^J aJ $h@ h} CJ OJ PJ QJ ^J aJ $h@ hpL CJ OJ PJ QJ ^J aJ $h@ hU0 CJ OJ PJ QJ ^J aJ $h@ hU} CJ OJ PJ QJ ^J aJ $h@ hbS CJ OJ PJ QJ ^J aJ $h@ h
CJ OJ PJ QJ ^J aJ r K e
g d ^ gdbS
$d a$gd]
$d a$gdbS $$d 7$ 8$ H$ `a$gd] $$d 7$ 8$ H$ a$gd] $$d a$gd] ' 9 < B | İr^J9%'h@ h} CJ OJ PJ QJ \^J aJ h@ hQC CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ 'h@ hQC CJ OJ PJ QJ \^J aJ 'h@ h CJ OJ PJ QJ \^J aJ 'h@ h CJ OJ PJ QJ \^J aJ 'h@ hm CJ OJ PJ QJ \^J aJ *h@ hbS 5CJ OJ PJ QJ \^J aJ 'h@ hbS CJ OJ PJ QJ \^J aJ *h@ hU0 5CJ OJ PJ QJ \^J aJ $h@ hC CJ OJ PJ QJ ^J aJ $h@ h& CJ OJ PJ QJ ^J aJ
I
J
e
m
" / 7 8 l o ıĞċxeRRe> 'h@ hjNC CJ OJ PJ QJ \^J aJ $h@ h& CJ OJ PJ QJ ^J aJ $h@ hjNC CJ OJ PJ QJ ^J aJ $h@ hQC CJ OJ PJ QJ ^J aJ $h@ h<$ CJ OJ PJ QJ ^J aJ $h@ h CJ OJ PJ QJ ^J aJ $h@ hFG CJ OJ PJ QJ ^J aJ $h@ h|n CJ OJ PJ QJ ^J aJ 'h@ hm CJ OJ PJ QJ \^J aJ 'h@ hb6 CJ OJ PJ QJ \^J aJ o y $ % ' ( íududSdBd- )j h@ h&Q` CJ OJ QJ U^J aJ h@ h% CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ h@ hRJ CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ h@ hu` CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ h@ h9z CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ h@ h=G CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ *h@ hbS 5CJ OJ PJ QJ \^J aJ *h@ hC 5CJ OJ PJ QJ \^J aJ 'h@ h0S CJ OJ PJ QJ \^J aJ 'h@ h|n CJ OJ PJ QJ \^J aJ 'h@ hiO CJ OJ PJ QJ \^J aJ + G *j ~j
$If ^ gdK[I d ^ `gd l eV d ^ `gdpE l eV d ^ `gdbS $ d ^ a$gdbS ( N O R ( ) * + Z [ ] ڳudN6 /ju h@ h:a CJ OJ QJ U^J aJ +h@ hI; CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ mH nH u h@ hG%8 CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ /j h@ h:a CJ OJ QJ U^J aJ )j h@ h:a CJ OJ QJ U^J aJ h@ h:a CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ h@ h9z CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ +h@ hW CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ mH nH u)j h@ h&Q` CJ OJ QJ U^J aJ h@ hW CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ ` j l 4 5 W X \ ] T! V! h! z! " " ˺˺˺ܔmܔm\Kܔ h@ hN4 CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ h@ h#x CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ +h@ hI; CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ mH nH u h@ hG%8 CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ )j h@ h:a CJ OJ QJ U^J aJ h@ h&Q` CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ h@ h*#o CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ h@ h9z CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ h@ h:a CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ #h@ h:a CJ OJ QJ ]^J aJ " J( K( S( T( V( a( b( f( g( ( ( ( ( ( ( + + + + ڳooZIZ3Z +h@ h} CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ mH nH u h@ h} CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ )j h@ h CJ OJ QJ U^J aJ h@ hl CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ h@ h CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ h@ hv CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ h@ h9z CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ h@ h:a CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ +h@ hI; CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ mH nH u)j h@ h:a CJ OJ QJ U^J aJ h@ hI; CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ + + + + + , , , , , $, 0, K, L, M, V, \, ], , , , , J/ K/ O/ P/ ޫޚޫޫމމtctMt +h@ hW CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ mH nH u h@ hW CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ )j h@ h CJ OJ QJ U^J aJ h@ h% CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ h@ hb CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ h@ h CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ h@ h
$ CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ h@ hpE CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ h@ h5_w CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ h@ h CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ P/ Q/ R/ w/ / / / / / / / 0 0 0 !0 "0 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 ͼͼͫͼͼt^M h@ hj| CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ +h@ h CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ mH nH u h@ h CJ OJ QJ ^J aJ )j h@ hu CJ OJ QJ U^J aJ h@ hB<