ࡱ > V Y Q R S T U ] bjbj++ H I'bI'bW R R 8 ! 4 N$ Pl $ < 6, ( ^, ^, ^, - 8. , d. k k k k k k k $ n q Z k |. - - |. |. k ^, ^, H
l 4 4 4 |. ^, ^, ] 4 |. k 4 4 YC | D ^, pU9! L/ . C ] l 0 Pl C q z/ > q $ D D q I X |. |. 4 |. |. |. |. |. k k 4 |. |. |. Pl |. |. |. |. q |. |. |. |. |. |. |. |. |. R B : Using vignettes to analyse potential influences of effective strength and conditioning coaching on athlete development
Christoph Szedlak
University of Southampton
Matthew J Smith
University of Chichester
Melissa C Day
University of Chichester
Bettina Callary
Cape Breton University
Author Note
Christoph Szedlak, Department of Sport and Wellbeing, University of Southampton
Matthew J. Smith, Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences University of Chichester
Melissa D. Day, Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Chichester
BettinaCallary, Department of Community Studies, Sport and Physical Activity Leadership (Coaching) Cape Breton University P.O.Box 5300, 1250 Grand Lake Road, Sydney, Nova Scotia, B1P 6L2, Canada
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Christoph Szedlak, Department of Sport and Wellbeing, University of Southampton, Student Services, Sports Training & Performance Centre, Wide Lane Sports Grounds, Eastleigh, Southampton, SO50 5PE
Contact: c.szedlak@soton.ac.uk
Abstract
This study aimed to understand which strength and conditioning (S&C) coaching behaviours and characteristics are perceived as effective by elite athletes and how these influence the athlete. A secondary aim was to consider the development and usefulness of vignettes to elicit new knowledge. Ten elite athletes reflected on scenarios presented in the vignettes. Resulting themes were divided into the process and factors influencing, and how the athletes are impacted. Themes were considered effective because of an environment of trust and respect. How coaches might influence the athlete were divided into: i) cognitive influences and ii) behavioural influences. The results are discussed in light of current sports coaching literature. Furthermore, we discuss the way the vignettes enhance the richness of the data collected. Practically, the results suggest that S&C coaches develop trust and respect to influence athletes development through effective instruction, communication and motivation.
Keywords: coaching, trust and respect, vignette development, athletes self-regulation, athletes motivation
Introduction
Elite athletic performance is predominantly measured by achieving success at major competitions such as the Olympic Games and World and European Championships. Medalling at these competitions is often a key performance indicator for National Governing Bodies (NGB) and can be directly linked to the individual athletes funding ADDIN EN.CITE UKSport2014371(DCMS & SportEngland, 2012; UKSport, 2014)37137117UKSportPerformance investment policy review - Tokyo cycle 2017-21UK Sport Board StaementUK Sport Board Staement1-32014DCMS20123733733736DCMS, SportEnglandCreating a sporting habit for life - a new youth sport strategy2012LondonDCMS(DCMS & SportEngland, 2012; UKSport, 2014). While performance is multi-faceted, the level of strength and conditioning (S&C) is one of the key contributors to an athletes development and performance ADDIN EN.CITE Brink2010375(Brink, Nederhof, Visscher, Schmikli & Lemmink, 2010; Newton & Kraemer, 1994)37537517Brink, Michel SNederhof, EstherVisscher, ChrisSchmikli, Sandor LLemmink, Koen APMMonitoring load, recovery, and performance in young elite soccer playersThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning ResearchThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research597-60324320101064-8011Newton199433633633617Newton, Robert UKraemer, William JDeveloping explosive muscular power: Implications for a mixed methods training strategyStrength & Conditioning JournalStrength & Conditioning Journal20-3116519941524-1602(Brink, Nederhof, Visscher, Schmikli & Lemmink, 2010; Newton & Kraemer, 1994). S&C coaching can have many positive impacts on the athlete, including helping reduce the risk of injury and maximising the athletes physiological potential ADDIN EN.CITE Kontor1989412(Kontor, 1989; NSCA, 2015; UKSCA, 2015)41241217Kontor, KenEDITORIAL: Defining a professionStrength & Conditioning JournalStrength & Conditioning Journal75-7511419891524-1602UKSCA201528228228212UKSCA UKSCA strength and conditioning curriculum2015http://www.uksca.org.uk/NSCA201528328328312NSCANSCA strength and conditioning curriculum2015http://www.nsca.com/(Kontor, 1989; NSCA, 2015; UKSCA, 2015). A recent survey conducted by the United Kingdom Strength and Conditioning Association (UKSCA) assessed the State of the Nation regarding S&C coaching. The results highlighted an increasing level of employment and qualifications held by S&C coaches. The majority of coaches surveyed were employed by either professional clubs, NGBs (directly or through the English Institute of Sport) or universities. In addition to holding either S&C accreditation and/or a graduate university degree, they had also obtained post-graduate qualifications (i.e., an MSc or PhD). These results indicate S&C coaches have a considerable scientific knowledge when working with athletes, which has a positive impact on the contribution that they make to athlete development and preparation for sport-specific performance ADDIN EN.CITE UKSCA2016523(UKSCA, 2016)52352317UKSCAState of the nation survey, 2016Retrieved from http://www.uksca.org.uk/UKSCA/pdfs/StateOfTheNation.pdf2016(UKSCA, 2016). In summary, the S&C coaching role within elite sport has been given an increased level of importance in the last few years.
Given the suggested importance credited to S&C, it is imperative to gain an understanding about the effective behaviours of S&C coaches and the influence these behaviours may have on the athlete. At present, research considering the effectiveness of S&C coaching in the elite sport environment has concentrated on technical areas such as physiological processes ADDIN EN.CITE Ahtiainen2011259(Ahtiainen et al., 2011)25925917Ahtiainen, Juha PLehti, MaaritHulmi, Juha JKraemer, William JAlen, MarkkuNyman, KaiSelnne, HarriPakarinen, ArtoKomulainen, JyrkiKovanen, VuokkoRecovery after heavy resistance exercise and skeletal muscle androgen receptor and insulin-like growth factor-I isoform expression in strength trained menThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning ResearchThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research767-77725320111064-8011(Ahtiainen et al., 2011) and bodily responses to exercise ADDIN EN.CITE Greer2011260(Greer, White, Arguello & Haymes, 2011)26026017Greer, Beau KjerulfWhite, Jim PArguello, Eric MHaymes, Emily MBranched-chain amino acid supplementation lowers perceived exertion but does not affect performance in untrained malesThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning ResearchThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research539-54425220111064-8011(Greer, White, Arguello & Haymes, 2011). As a result of this focus on physical elements of performance, the coaching process within S&C has been characterised by a transactional or instructional coaching style, with coaches principally implementing corrective actions to impact the athletes physical development ADDIN EN.CITE Rowold200654(Rowold, 2006)5454017Rowold, JensTransformational and transactional leadership in martial artsJournal of Applied Sport PsychologyJournal of Applied Sport Psychology312-32518420061041-3200
1533-1571(Rowold, 2006). However, an emerging body of research-based knowledge suggests that effective S&C coaching incorporates social, psychological and emotional elements or higher order behaviours, such as trust, respect and motivation, that look beyond this technical aspect ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Magnusen, 2010; Massey et al., 2002).
ADDIN EN.CITE Tod2012258Tod, Bond and Lavallee (2012)25825817Tod, David ABond, Kath ALavallee, DavidProfessional development themes in strength and conditioning coachesThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning ResearchThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research851-86026320121064-8011Tod, Bond and Lavallee (2012) provided initial evidence that behaviours and characteristics other than effective instruction, such as trust, respect, self-confidence and motivation, are effective within S&C coaching. Tod and his colleagues found that by developing good rapport and trust with the athlete, S&C coaching becomes less prescriptive and more athlete-centred. More recently, ADDIN EN.CITE Szedlak2015374Szedlak, Smith, Day and Greenlees (2015)37437417Szedlak, ChrisSmith, Matthew J.Day, Melissa CGreenlees, Ian AExamining athletes perceptions of effective behaviours in strength and conditioning coachingInternational Journal of Sports Science & CoachingInternational Journal of Sports Science & Coaching967-9841052015Szedlak, Smith, Day and Greenlees (2015) identified effective behaviours and characteristics of S&C coaches as perceived by athletes. The study results revealed three general themes of effective S&C coaching behaviours and characteristics: relationship, coaches actions, and coaches values, which included psychosocial characteristics such as trust, respect and authenticity. Key findings from Szedlak et al.s study included the emphasis the athlete ascribes to psychosocial behaviours of the coach that develop and enhance their relationship, which supports previous research of the effectiveness of the coach-athlete relationship ADDIN EN.CITE Jowett2007398(Jowett & Poczwardowski, 2007)3983985Jowett, SophiaPoczwardowski, ArturS. Jowette D. LavalleeUnderstanding the coach-athlete relationshipSocial Psychology in Sport3-14*Athletes*Coaches*SportsInterpersonal Relationships2007Champaign, IL, USHuman Kinetics0-7360-5780-3 (Hardcover); 978-0-7360-5780-6 (Hardcover)(Jowett & Poczwardowski, 2007).
Despite the emerging knowledge on effective qualities of S&C coaches, methods used in such research limited participants to describe the qualities possessed by their S&C coaches, rather than examining the relational coaching process with their coach. Thus, our knowledge is somewhat restricted to what S&C coaches currently do, rather than how they might be most effective. Psychosocial and cultural interactions are essential elements in the S&C coaching process ADDIN EN.CITE Szedlak2015374(Radcliffe, Comfort & Fawcett, 2013; Szedlak et al., 2015)37437417Szedlak, ChrisSmith, Matthew J.Day, Melissa CGreenlees, Ian AExamining athletes perceptions of effective behaviours in strength and conditioning coachingInternational Journal of Sports Science & CoachingInternational Journal of Sports Science & Coaching967-9841052015Radcliffe201364164164117Radcliffe, Jon NComfort, PaulFawcett, TomThe perception of psychology and the frequency of psychological strategies used by strength and conditioning practitionersThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning ResearchThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research1136-114627420131064-8011(Radcliffe, Comfort & Fawcett, 2013; Szedlak et al., 2015). To analyse interpersonal constructions, researchers should consider appropriate methods that enable the participants to make sense of their experiences of being coached ADDIN EN.CITE Papathomas2016631(Papathomas, 2016)6316315Papathomas, AnthonySmith, Brett MSparkes, Andrew CNarrative InquiryRoutledge handbook of qualitative research in sport and exercise2016London and New YorkTaylor & Francis1317646916(Papathomas, 2016). Thus, providing athletes with stories of effective S&C coaching allows them to relate to and identify with the narratives and as a result examine the how and why of their own experiences.
One method for engaging participants in such stories is through the use of imagined scenarios and discussions in vignettes. Vignettes present a hypothetical scenario, framed within a story for the participant to read and respond to ADDIN EN.CITE Braun2013290(Braun & Clarke, 2013)2902906Braun, VirginiaClarke, VictoriaSuccessful qualitative research: A practical guide for beginners2013Sage1847875815(Braun & Clarke, 2013). In order to construct these scenarios, vignettes can be generated from a variety of sources including previous research findings ADDIN EN.CITE Perrier2015357(Perrier, Smith & Latimer-Cheung, 2015)35735717Perrier, Marie-JoseSmith, Brett Latimer-Cheung, Amy EStories that move? Peer athlete mentors' responses to mentee disability and sport narrativesPsychology of Sport and ExercisePsychology of Sport and Exercise60-671820151469-0292(Perrier, Smith & Latimer-Cheung, 2015), working together with peer professionals in the relevant field ADDIN EN.CITE Harden1999377(Gearity, Callary & Fulmer, 2013; Harden, 1999)37737717Harden, JImpact of risk and parental risk anxiety on the everyday worlds of childrenRetrieved from http://www.esrc.ac.uk/curprog.html1999Gearity201333333333317Gearity, Brian TCallary, BettinaFulmer, PhillipLearning to coach: A qualitative case study of Phillip FulmerJournal of Coaching EducationJournal of Coaching Education65-866220131938-7016(Gearity, Callary & Fulmer, 2013; Harden, 1999), or based on real-life case histories ADDIN EN.CITE Rahman1996297(Rahman, 1996)29729717Rahman, NailaCaregivers' sensitivity to conflict: The use of the vignette methodologyJournal of Elder Abuse & NeglectJournal of Elder Abuse & Neglect35-478119960894-6566(Rahman, 1996). The use of vignettes provides a valuable way to initiate and extend discussions around an issue or story by means of introducing personal experience. The use of vignettes depicting behaviours and characteristics provides an alternative method to traditional interviewing, allowing and prompting the participant to draw on their own and others experiences and stories ADDIN EN.CITE Barter200034(Barter & Renold, 2000; Hazel, 1995)343417Barter, ChristineRenold, Emma'I wanna tell you a story': exploring the application of vignettes in qualitative research with children and young peopleInternational Journal of Social Research Methodology307-3233420001364-5579Hazel199531231231217Hazel, NeilElicitation techniques with young peopleSocial Research UpdateSocial Research Update121995(Barter & Renold, 2000; Hazel, 1995). Thus, vignettes have the ability to extend interview discussions, resulting in new, untapped, richer data of the participants judgments, meanings and evaluations in response to the vignettes and to their own stories ADDIN EN.CITE Jenkins2010292(Jenkins, Bloor, Fischer, Berney & Neale, 2010)29229217Jenkins, NicholasBloor, MichaelFischer, JanBerney, LeeNeale, JoannePutting it in context: The use of vignettes in qualitative interviewingQualitative ResearchQualitative Research175-19810220101468-7941(Jenkins, Bloor, Fischer, Berney & Neale, 2010).
Previous research outside of sport has demonstrated the value of using vignettes as a novel method of data collection, especially with regards to prompting participants to talk about their own experiences, while enabling them to control when and if they wanted to disclose those experiences ADDIN EN.CITE Hughes1998316(Hughes, 1998)31631617Hughes, RhidianConsidering the vignette technique and its application to a study of drug injecting and HIV risk and safer behaviourSociology of Health & IllnessSociology of Health & Illness381-40020319981467-9566(Hughes, 1998). Similarly, ADDIN EN.CITE Barter200023Barter and Renold (2000)232317Barter, ChristineRenold, Emma'I wanna tell you a story': exploring the application of vignettes in qualitative research with children and young peopleInternational Journal of Social Research Methodology307-3233420001364-5579Barter and Renold (2000) noted that responding to a vignette is less intrusive than direct questioning. Surprisingly, limited consideration has been given to the application of the vignette method within the sports coaching environment. ADDIN EN.CITE Perrier2015357Perrier et al. (2015)35735717Perrier, Marie-JoseSmith, Brett Latimer-Cheung, Amy EStories that move? Peer athlete mentors' responses to mentee disability and sport narrativesPsychology of Sport and ExercisePsychology of Sport and Exercise60-671820151469-0292Perrier et al. (2015) utilised vignettes to understand how the mentors of peer athletes responded to their mentees' attitudes, and the subsequent impact towards the mentees engagement in sport. The vignettes added flexibility for the mentors to reflect on scenarios that they had not come across whilst being reminded of similar personal experiences, resulting in richer depth of data. Perrier et al.s study highlights the potential value provided by vignettes in prompting several participants consideration of the same scenario. In summary, vignettes have the ability to elicit rich data, with participants each responding to the same stories concerning both psychological and sociological issues, thus providing a framework from which participants have control over what they want to say and how they want to say it ADDIN EN.CITE Hughes2002632(Hughes & Huby, 2002)63263217Hughes, RhidianHuby, MegThe application of vignettes in social and nursing researchJournal of advanced nursingJournal of advanced nursing382-38637420021365-2648(Hughes & Huby, 2002). We therefore propose that such an approach would assist in illuminating the effectiveness of S&C coaches behaviours and characteristics and their likely influence on athletes development. In summary, this study has two specific aims. First, we aimed to understand which S&C coaching behaviours and characteristics are perceived as effective by elite athletes and how these behaviours and characteristics influence the athlete. Second, we aimed to demonstrate the development and usefulness of vignettes to elicit new knowledge.
Method
Theoretical Background and Approach
The study was grounded in a constructivist paradigm, in which reality is socially constructed and knowledge cannot be theory free or exist independently of people ADDIN EN.CITE Smith2009359(Smith & Sparkes, 2009)35935917Smith, BrettSparkes, Andrew CNarrative inquiry in sport and exercise psychology: What can it mean, and why might we do it?Psychology of sport and exercisePsychology of Sport and Exercise1-1110120091469-0292(Smith & Sparkes, 2009). Thus, using this paradigm, this study can understand different, diverse experiences and perceptions of elite athletes and their relationship with their S&C coach. In line with a constructivist paradigm, a narrative inquiry was used to investigate the research aims ADDIN EN.CITE Smith2009359(Smith & Sparkes, 2009)35935917Smith, BrettSparkes, Andrew CNarrative inquiry in sport and exercise psychology: What can it mean, and why might we do it?Psychology of sport and exercisePsychology of Sport and Exercise1-1110120091469-0292(Smith & Sparkes, 2009). Narrative psychology views people as story tellers, constructing knowledge and realities through stories ADDIN EN.CITE Smith2010358(Bruner, 1986; McLeod, 1997; Smith, 2010)35835817Smith, BrettNarrative inquiry: Ongoing conversations and questions for sport and exercise psychology researchInternational Review of Sport and Exercise PsychologyInternational review of sport and exercise psychology87-1073120101750-984XBruner198652552552517Bruner, JeromeActual minds, possible worlds (The Jerusalem-Harvard lectures)1986McLeod19975265265266McLeod, JohnNarrative and psychotherapy1997Sage0803976860(Bruner, 1986; McLeod, 1997; Smith, 2010). As stories operate within relationship, such as that between an athlete and his or her coach, the responses to the stories shared by others are equally as important as the stories they may tell themselves ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Frank, 2007, 2010; Smith & Sparkes, 2009). The narratives or vignettes in the current study were stories based on previous research that participants read and responded to. Thus, the vignettes helped the participant to initiate and analyse their own experiences and gave participants the ability to share their own stories. Therefore, the aim of the narrative approach was not to arrive at accurate predictions of the participants behaviour but instead to achieve insight into the participants constructive framework and perceptual process such as what they perceive to be effective coaching practise, their perception of the possible influence thereof and how they came to that conclusion. Given its focus on storied lives and relationships, narrative inquiry is commensurate with research examining the relationship between a coach and an athlete.
In addition, narratives or vignettes are used to study potentially sensitive issues ADDIN EN.CITE Barter2000293(Barter & Renold, 2000)29329317Barter, ChristineRenold, Emma'I wanna tell you a story': Exploring the application of vignettes in qualitative research with children and young peopleInternational Journal of Social Research MethodologyInternational Journal of Social Research Methodology307-3233420001364-5579(Barter & Renold, 2000). To be eligible for elite sports funding, the athletes in the current study needed to engage and adhere to the NGBs development programme, which includes S&C support. The athletes can respond to hypothetical scenarios in vignettes, which is less intrusive than directly being asked about their experiences and allows the participants to respond to potentially sensitive issues in the vignettes, without having to disclose specific and personal issues relating to their own experiences. Thus, the vignettes give participants more freedom in responding to the hypothetical situations, which supports Hughes & Huby's (2002) contention that responding to vignettes decreases the likelihood of receiving socially desirable answers. For example, participants' responses can focus more fully on the psychosocial aspect of effective S&C coaching, demonstrating how participants are not inhibited about discussing relational aspects.
Recently, the focus of UKSport has shifted to establishing a positive coaching culture to ensure the welfare of elite athletes rather than winning medals at all cost. NGBs such as GB cycling are currently subject to independent reviews focusing on how to improve their focus on athletes' welfare ADDIN EN.CITE UkSport2017640(UKSport, 2017)64064012UKSportBritish Cycling Independent Review2017http://www.uksport.gov.uk/resources/cycling-review(UKSport, 2017). This shift has heightened sensitivity of examining internal coaching processes ADDIN EN.CITE UKSport2015639(UKSport, 2015)63963912UKSportUKSport Stakeholder Consultation Report2015http://www.uksport.gov.uk/resources/strategic-review(UKSport, 2015). Prior to undertaking this research, the lead author had several meetings with the sports science departments of the NGBs, discussing possible ways of reducing any risk of negative publicity throughout the interview process. As a result, a less direct and intrusive approach, using vignettes, was agreed upon.
Vignette Development
Our study aims to develop a plausible, authentic and transparent vignette. The use of vignettes in research is based on the key assumption that narrative representations of emotional events can be treated as functionally comparable to the corresponding real-life encounters ADDIN EN.CITE Parkinson1993319`, p. 296(Parkinson & Manstead, 1993, p. 296)31931917Parkinson, BrianManstead, Antony SRMaking sense of emotion in stories and social lifeCognition & EmotionCognition & Emotion295-32373-419930269-9931(Parkinson & Manstead, 1993, p. 296). Consequently, vignettes are likely to be most productive when the situation described appears real and conceivable to the participants ADDIN EN.CITE Barter200019(Barter & Renold, 2000)191917Barter, ChristineRenold, Emma'I wanna tell you a story': exploring the application of vignettes in qualitative research with children and young peopleInternational Journal of Social Research Methodology307-3233420001364-5579(Barter & Renold, 2000). ADDIN EN.CITE Barter2000293Barter and Renold (2000)29329317Barter, ChristineRenold, Emma'I wanna tell you a story': Exploring the application of vignettes in qualitative research with children and young peopleInternational Journal of Social Research MethodologyInternational Journal of Social Research Methodology307-3233420001364-5579Barter and Renold (2000) suggest that the discrepancy between a vignette and the social reality is the most frequently cited theoretical limitation of using vignettes. Consequently, the closer the vignettes depiction of an actual and plausible scenario, the smaller the gap between belief and potential action ADDIN EN.CITE Jenkins2010292(Jenkins et al., 2010)29229217Jenkins, NicholasBloor, MichaelFischer, JanBerney, LeeNeale, JoannePutting it in context: The use of vignettes in qualitative interviewingQualitative ResearchQualitative Research175-19810220101468-7941(Jenkins et al., 2010). The following section outlines how we applied the criteria set out by ADDIN EN.CITE Barter1999396Barter and Renold (1999)39639617Barter, ChristineRenold, EmmaThe use of vignettes in qualitative researchSocial research updateSocial Research Update1-62591999Barter and Renold (1999), ADDIN EN.CITE Braun2013290Braun and Clarke (2013)2902906Braun, VirginiaClarke, VictoriaSuccessful qualitative research: A practical guide for beginners2013Sage1847875815Braun and Clarke (2013) and ADDIN EN.CITE Smith2015401(Smith, Tomasone, Latimer-Cheung & Martin-Ginis, 2015)40140117Smith, BrettTomasone, Jennifer RLatimer-Cheung, Amy EMartin-Ginis, Kathleen ANarrative as a knowledge translation tool for facilitating impact: Translating physical activity knowledge to disabled people and health professionalsHealth PsychologyHealth Psychology303-31334420151433820617Smith, Tomasone, Latimer-Cheung & Martin-Ginis (2015) to ensure rich rigor in developing an authentic vignette.
Firstly, a single vignette was scripted using a continuous narrative developmental approach ADDIN EN.CITE Hughes1998316(Hughes, 1998)31631617Hughes, RhidianConsidering the vignette technique and its application to a study of drug injecting and HIV risk and safer behaviourSociology of Health & IllnessSociology of Health & Illness381-40020319981467-9566(Hughes, 1998), that consisted of a story unfolding through a series of fixed stages where participants were invited to comment on each stage as the story progressed ADDIN EN.CITE Jenkins2010292(Jenkins et al., 2010)29229217Jenkins, NicholasBloor, MichaelFischer, JanBerney, LeeNeale, JoannePutting it in context: The use of vignettes in qualitative interviewingQualitative ResearchQualitative Research175-19810220101468-7941(Jenkins et al., 2010). This vignette included five stages of common scenarios: S&C review sessions, physical testing, stretching, cool down and techniques session. A continuous narrative has the ability to keep the participant interested as each stage of the vignette builds upon previous events, thus contextual material need not to be supplied for each scenario ADDIN EN.CITE Hughes1998316(Hughes, 1998)31631617Hughes, RhidianConsidering the vignette technique and its application to a study of drug injecting and HIV risk and safer behaviourSociology of Health & IllnessSociology of Health & Illness381-40020319981467-9566(Hughes, 1998). To enhance authenticity, a novel approach was utilised to ground the vignette in previous research ADDIN EN.CITE Perrier2015357(Perrier et al., 2015; Smith et al., 2015)35735717Perrier, Marie-JoseSmith, Brett Latimer-Cheung, Amy EStories that move? Peer athlete mentors' responses to mentee disability and sport narrativesPsychology of Sport and ExercisePsychology of Sport and Exercise60-671820151469-0292Smith201540140140117Smith, BrettTomasone, Jennifer RLatimer-Cheung, Amy EMartin-Ginis, Kathleen ANarrative as a knowledge translation tool for facilitating impact: Translating physical activity knowledge to disabled people and health professionalsHealth PsychologyHealth Psychology303-31334420151433820617(Perrier et al., 2015; Smith et al., 2015). To create each stage, participant quotations from previous research were used to provide a real-life flavour to the vignette ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Callary, Werthner & Trudel, 2012; Douglas & Carless, 2008; Rathwell, Callary & Young, 2015). Thus, the current study is a direct progression from previous research into effective behaviours and characteristics in S&C coaches, where ADDIN EN.CITE Szedlak2015374Szedlak et al. (2015)37437417Szedlak, ChrisSmith, Matthew J.Day, Melissa CGreenlees, Ian AExamining athletes perceptions of effective behaviours in strength and conditioning coachingInternational Journal of Sports Science & CoachingInternational Journal of Sports Science & Coaching967-9841052015Szedlak et al. (2015) interviewed eight elite athletes regarding their perceptions of effective behaviours and characteristics of S&C coaches. Szedlak and colleagues identified three main themes consisting of 11 sub-themes. In this vignette, participant quotations taken directly from Szedlak et al.s findings were used to represent these individual sub-themes (see Appendix A for included quotations, sub-themes and complete vignette), with quotations principally included in the dialogue between coaches and athletes in the vignettes.
To further enhance the authenticity of the vignettes, we constructed the vignette stages around actual scenarios in a common setting experienced at a NGB squad training camp. Thus, each stage focuses on common scenarios such as testing sessions and technique sessions. The gender of the main character and the sport of the vignette was changed to match the gender and sport of the individual athlete reading and being interviewed about the vignette. Further, to provide efficient enough context and to minimise the risk of disengaging the participant, the stages of the vignettes are short, not exceeding 300 words ADDIN EN.CITE Barter2000293(Barter & Renold, 2000)29329317Barter, ChristineRenold, Emma'I wanna tell you a story': Exploring the application of vignettes in qualitative research with children and young peopleInternational Journal of Social Research MethodologyInternational Journal of Social Research Methodology307-3233420001364-5579(Barter & Renold, 2000) and utilise dialogue ADDIN EN.CITE Smith2015401(Smith et al., 2015)40140117Smith, BrettTomasone, Jennifer RLatimer-Cheung, Amy EMartin-Ginis, Kathleen ANarrative as a knowledge translation tool for facilitating impact: Translating physical activity knowledge to disabled people and health professionalsHealth PsychologyHealth Psychology303-31334420151433820617(Smith et al., 2015).
Finally, to enhance the vignettes transparency, each vignette followed one character. That central character spoke to others, who responded as part of the vignette. The plurality of character voices may better enable the reader to resonate with the story and encourage more detailed responses to the vignette as different ways of being and acting may be opened ADDIN EN.CITE Frank2010345(Frank, 2010; Parsons & Lavery, 2012)3453456Frank, Arthur WLetting stories breathe: A socio-narratology2010University of Chicago Press0226260143Parsons201235535535517Parsons, Janet ALavery, James VBrokered dialogue: A new research method for controversial health and social issuesBMC Medical Research MethodologyBMC medical research methodology92-10012120121471-2288(Frank, 2010; Parsons & Lavery, 2012). In line with Barter and Reynolds ADDIN EN.CITE Barter1999396(1999)39639617Barter, ChristineRenold, EmmaThe use of vignettes in qualitative researchSocial research updateSocial Research Update1-62591999(1999) suggestion that more than three changes in a story line of a vignette could be confusing to the reader, every individual stage included no more than two actual quotes depicting sub-themes, identified by Szedlak et al. (2015), of specific coach characteristics or behaviours. Further, the themes/quotations were mapped regarding best fit towards the different S&C scenarios chosen for each stage by consulting peer S&C coaches ADDIN EN.CITE Kalafat199677(Harden, 1999; Kalafat & Gagliano, 1996)777717Kalafat, JohnGagliano, CarlaThe use of simulations to assess the impact of an adolescent suicide response curriculumSuicide and Life-Threatening Behavior359-36426419961943-278XHarden199937737737717Harden, JImpact of risk and parental risk anxiety on the everyday worlds of childrenRetrieved from http://www.esrc.ac.uk/curprog.html1999Harden199937737737717Harden, JImpact of risk and parental risk anxiety on the everyday worlds of childrenRetrieved from http://www.esrc.ac.uk/curprog.html1999(Harden, 1999; Kalafat & Gagliano, 1996).
Enhancing Rigor
We also used an audit trail to ensure rigor in the process of developing a vignette that highly resonates with the participants. First, an elite S&C coach with extensive coaching experience, who was not part of the previous process, acted as a critical friend ADDIN EN.CITE Smith2017677(Smith & McGannon, 2017)67767717Smith, BrettMcGannon, Kerry RDeveloping rigor in qualitative research: problems and opportunities within sport and exercise psychologyInternational Review of Sport and Exercise PsychologyInternational review of sport and exercise psychology1-2120171750-984X(Smith & McGannon, 2017) throughout the vignette development process. The critical friend frequently reviewed and questioned the characterisation, the dialogue and the plot to help in the creation of a plausible vignette where the sub-themes are well represented ADDIN EN.CITE Brewer2011235(Brewer & Sparkes, 2011)23523517Brewer, Joanne DSparkes, Andrew CYoung people living with parental bereavement: Insights from an ethnographic study of a UK childhood bereavement serviceSocial Science & MedicineSocial Science & Medicine283-29072220110277-9536(Brewer & Sparkes, 2011). For example, the critical friend suggested that a personal conversation during a workout is highly unlikely, but is realistic during the cool down. Thus, the scenario was altered to include the conversation during the cool down. Second, the first author kept a reflective diary, which helped to inform the development of the authenticity of the vignette. The first author reflected on how the participants engaged with the story and what specific wording needed further explanations. One example of a change made was in altering wording relating to individual sports, as the first author realised that for example, a canoeist would refer to an on-water session as paddling whereas a sailor refers to it as sailing. Although subtle in nature, this extra effort to increase the level of plausibility and authenticity in vignette research should not to be neglected.
The following is an example of Stage 2 of the vignette presented to a female sailor. Actual quotes, in italics, represent three themes identified by Szedlak et al., (2015) to be effective in S&C coaching. These themes are: i) confidence, ii) high performance expectations, iii) belief in the athlete.
Emma started the cool down and stretch, when another friend, Pete, an experienced sailor part of the performance group, came to join her. They started to talk about the days event and how the sailing went. As they continued Pete asked her what her schedule was for the next day. Emma replied, Oh we have got fitness testing in the morning, Im not looking forward to it. Pete responded, I quite like it, this morning during my testing Rob was like (i) one more, one more and he kept going. I ended up with 36 press ups, it was as if he knew how strong I was. Emma replied Wow, yeah, (ii) I guess the whole can-do attitude that he has and that he will not let us fail makes the session bearable. Emma paused and added (iii) I guess he really believes in me and my ability. They finished off the stretching and hurried to get some dinner.
Participants
Participants were 10 elite, international level university athletes (Male=4; Female=6), who had a mean age of 24.6 years (SD=3.1), had an average of 10 years of experience in their sport (SD=2.3) and an average of 5 years of experience at an elite level (SD=2.5). The sample included a current multiple Olympic medallist, three World Champions and a member of an Americas Cup sailing team. Individual sports were represented by two single-handed sailors, one kayaker and one cyclist. Team sports included four double-handed sailors and two sailors representing match racing.
Participants were purposefully selected from a university sports scholarship programme. In keeping with the guidelines for purposive sampling as outlined by ADDIN EN.CITE Polkinghorne2005321Polkinghorne (2005)32132117Polkinghorne, Donald ELanguage and meaning: Data collection in qualitative researchJournal of Counseling PsychologyJournal of counseling psychology137-14552220051591472881Polkinghorne (2005), athletes were selected who fit the following five criteria; i) each athlete had an accredited S&C coach (ASCC), with the coach holding a MSc in sport science, as outlined by the Talented Athlete Scholarship Scheme to be working with elite athletes ADDIN EN.CITE Taylor2016242(Taylor, 2016)2422426Taylor, GuyTalented Athlete Scholarship Scheme Policy Document2016NewcastleNewcastle University(Taylor, 2016); ii) each athlete had a coach with a minimum of three years full-time coaching experience; iii) each athlete worked with the coach for a minimum of one year, two times per week; and iv) each athlete received government funding to support their training and had previously represented their country. Lastly, participants ability to engage with the story might be enhanced if they have personal experience of the situation described. To meet this criterion, we ensured that every athlete had experienced a NGB squad camp as described in the vignettes. The athletes worked with six different S&C coaches, five male and one female, with an average age of 31 years (SD=2.3). These criteria ensured that the S&C coaches were actively engaged in coaching for a considerable amount of time (mean experience = 10 years; SD=1.2).
Procedure and Analysis
Following institutional ethical approval, interviews were held at a setting agreed to by the participant. All participants chose a quiet location within their own training environment, to ensure minimal disturbances or distractions, allowing them to feel relaxed and comfortable talking during the interview. To ensure confidentiality, it was explained to the participants that data would not be attributed to them and that names mentioned during the interview process would be omitted from the transcribed data. Interviews lasted between 45 - 60 minutes (Mminutes = 54). The interviews began with some general questions that aimed to develop rapport and familiarise the participant with the interview process. For example, the initial questions included Tell me how you started and what you consider to be your biggest achievements in your sport?, and Tell me about your preparation for your sport, including S&C? Following this, the participants were invited to read the first stage of the vignette. After each stage of the vignette, participants were asked to discuss their perceptions of the coachs behaviours and possible influences and whether they agreed or disagreed with the athletes perceptions of the coachs behaviours presented in the vignettes. Open ended questions were used to encourage the participants to share their own stories as similar or dissimilar to the experiences of the character in the vignette ADDIN EN.CITE Braun2013290(Braun & Clarke, 2013)2902906Braun, VirginiaClarke, VictoriaSuccessful qualitative research: A practical guide for beginners2013Sage1847875815(Braun & Clarke, 2013). Questions included How do you think the athlete is feeling towards his/her S&C coach?, How would you feel and what would you think?, Have you been in a situation like this before and can you share that story?, and How did your S&C coaches behaviours or characteristics influence you in this experience?
Thus, the questions following each vignette stage aimed to illuminate how participants thought the character in the story would feel and behave and how they themselves might feel and respond if presented with a similar scenario with their S&C coach ADDIN EN.CITE Braun2013290(Braun & Clarke, 2013)2902906Braun, VirginiaClarke, VictoriaSuccessful qualitative research: A practical guide for beginners2013Sage1847875815(Braun & Clarke, 2013). Additionally, the questions aimed to allow maximum freedom for participants to draw on their own experiences using their own terminology, to identify coaching behaviours and characteristics that have influenced their development. The interview concluded with open-ended, closing and summary questions, prompting the participant to add additional comments by questioning, Did you imagine anything else when you were reading the story? and Could you identify with the characters and, if so, why? Follow up questions or probes such as What do you mean by this? and Could you elaborate on this? were used to clarify and correct misunderstanding as well as to elaborate and expand on the coaches effective behaviour and outcomes ADDIN EN.CITE Sparkes2014369(Sparkes & Smith, 2014)3693696Sparkes, Andrew CSmith, BrettQualitative research methods in sport, exercise and health: From process to product2014Routledge1136974725(Sparkes & Smith, 2014). During each interview, a whiteboard was used as a visual aid to assist the participant in recognising and listing qualities already discussed. For example, the key points from participants responses to the vignettes were recorded on the whiteboard, and this allowed participants to revisit points made, and thus encouraging further explanation and detail from the participants.
Data from the first or preceding interviews were analysed before conducting the next. This process was repeated and participants were recruited until saturation was achieved. Data saturation is attained when there are no more emergent patterns in the data, at which point completing further interviews does not add any new information ADDIN EN.CITE O'Reilly2012361(Hennink, Hutter & Bailey, 2010; O'Reilly & Parker, 2012)36136117O'Reilly, MichelleParker, NicolaUnsatisfactory saturation: A critical exploration of the notion of saturated sample sizes in qualitative researchQualitative ResearchQualitative Research190-19713220121468-7941Hennink20103603603606Hennink, MoniqueHutter, IngeBailey, AjayQualitative research methods2010Sage1412922259(Hennink, Hutter & Bailey, 2010; O'Reilly & Parker, 2012). To aid in this endeavour, the primary researcher used a reflective journal throughout the data collection and analysis process. This process of critical self-reflection aimed to enhance transparency ADDIN EN.CITE Ortlipp2008238(Ortlipp, 2008)23823817Ortlipp, MichelleKeeping and using reflective journals in the qualitative research processThe Qualitative ReportThe Qualitative Report695-7051342008(Ortlipp, 2008), and impacted the data collection and analysis in various ways. Comments made in the reflective journal resulted in small amendments to the individual vignettes and to the key questions asked throughout the stages. For example, after the interview with the first participant, the setting of the context and description of the main character in stage three was revised and additional questions focusing on possible influences on the athletes were considered. Furthermore, entries in the journal were routinely presented and discussed with the critical friend.
All the interviews were transcribed verbatim and analysed using a thematic content analysis of the participants narratives ADDIN EN.CITE Ewick2003363(Ewick & Silbey, 2003)36336317Ewick, PatriciaSilbey, SusanNarrating social structure: Stories of resistance to legal authorityAmerican Journal of SociologyAmerican Journal of Sociology1328-137210862003(Ewick & Silbey, 2003). To gain content familiarity, the interview transcripts were read several times. Next, narrative units were identified. The narrative unit or story refers to a brief, bounded segment of the interview text consisting of a plot connecting characters and events sequentially over time ADDIN EN.CITE Smith2009359(Smith & Sparkes, 2009)35935917Smith, BrettSparkes, Andrew CNarrative inquiry in sport and exercise psychology: What can it mean, and why might we do it?Psychology of sport and exercisePsychology of Sport and Exercise1-1110120091469-0292(Smith & Sparkes, 2009). Following the six-phase procedure outlined by ADDIN EN.CITE Braun2006291Braun and Clarke (2006)29129117Braun, VirginiaClarke, VictoriaUsing thematic analysis in psychologyQualitative research in psychologyQualitative research in psychology77-1013220061478-0887Braun and Clarke (2006), each narrative unit was initially coded and categorised representing particular effective behaviours, characteristics of the coach and/or influence. Next, the codes were collapsed into potential themes. The themes were reviewed against transcripts and the entire data set and combined into larger themes. At this point the authors returned to the literature on effective coaching behaviours and characteristics and amended each theme title to reflect the literature, thereby providing connections with established work in order to reduce confusion regarding terminology in the sports coaching literature ADDIN EN.CITE Szedlak2015374(Szedlak et al., 2015)37437417Szedlak, ChrisSmith, Matthew J.Day, Melissa CGreenlees, Ian AExamining athletes perceptions of effective behaviours in strength and conditioning coachingInternational Journal of Sports Science & CoachingInternational Journal of Sports Science & Coaching967-9841052015(Szedlak et al., 2015). The aim at this stage was not to change the meaning or categorisation from the inductive themes but simply to ensure terminology was consistent with the existing literature. Additionally, an experienced qualitative researcher was used throughout the data analysis as a critical friend, who encouraged reflection and considerations of alternative interpretations on the themes analysed ADDIN EN.CITE Brewer2011235(Brewer & Sparkes, 2011; Smith & McGannon, 2017)23523517Brewer, Joanne DSparkes, Andrew CYoung people living with parental bereavement: Insights from an ethnographic study of a UK childhood bereavement serviceSocial Science & MedicineSocial Science & Medicine283-29072220110277-9536Smith201767767767717Smith, BrettMcGannon, Kerry RDeveloping rigor in qualitative research: problems and opportunities within sport and exercise psychologyInternational Review of Sport and Exercise PsychologyInternational review of sport and exercise psychology1-2120171750-984X(Brewer & Sparkes, 2011; Smith & McGannon, 2017). Overall, 56 units formed the themes, resulting in 10 sub-themes, and establishing three broad themes.
Results
When exploring athletes perceptions of S&C coaches effective behaviours and influences, the results revealed that trust and respect of the S&C coach were major salient aspects overarching what characteristics and coaching behaviours influence the athletes and how these influence: i) athletes cognition and affect and ii) athletes behaviour. Figure 1 highlights the overarching emphasis athletes place on trust and respect for the S&C coach. Moreover, it emphasises how psychosocial behaviours and characteristics of the S&C coach operate through such an environment resulting in positive impacts on the athlete.
Process and factors influencing the athlete
Trust and respect. In response to the vignette, participants highlighted that trust, or the confidence that they place in their S&C coach, and respect, or the feeling of high regards and admiration of their S&C coach are fundamental. Stories told by participants emphasised the importance of trust and respect with their S&C coach, which is at the centre of the process and seen to be the most important element in having a positive impact. Without trust and respect the behaviours and characteristics of the S&C coach would have limited or no beneficial influence on the athlete. These terms were used inseparably by the participants
Seeing that [the character in the vignette] trusts and respects him, if it would be me I would be happy to take my time to ask if I did not understand something. I would not be afraid of making mistakes. I would be relaxed. If it would be someone I trust and respect I would be happy to take my time and perfect my technique and not be rushed (). It is pretty applicable for the S&C coach I currently work with. I trust him as much as I know that he knows what he is talking about. (Participant #1)
Another response clearly demonstrated how essential trust and respect is to the athletes engagement with the session and the programme.
For me, I have to trust and respect the [S&C] coach I am working with, otherwise the session would be quite stressful and I would probably find a good excuse to stay at home and start to make up my own programme. (Participant #9)
One participant revealed that when these fundamental components of trust and respect are not present, other effective characteristic such as tailoring the session to the individual would have little influence.
I don't think I ever had any respect for the S&C coach, because I don't think I knew him well enough because my squad was always quite a big squad. I never really thought I would take the programme on, because it was never that tailored to myself and it was very general (...). However, if he would concentrate on me personally, the programme would become important to me. And I would want it well in advance to prepare. If that would not be communicated to me and I only get the programme at the session, I would probably start losing trust in him. (Participant #2)
Participants constantly reiterated that trust and respect were vital aspects of effective coaching and talked about how S&C coaches characteristics could initiate such trust and respect, but also how S&C coaches effective behaviours maintain and add to this relationship. Thus, the results depict what coaching characteristics and behaviours influence the trust and respect that athletes perceive between themselves and their S&C coach.
Coaches characteristics. This theme depicts stories told by the by the participants describing how certain characteristics of the S&C coach influence the trust and respect athletes have for their S&C coach, and in turn, lead to a positive impact on athlete outcomes.
Coach is caring. The results suggest how the qualities of the S&C coach, such as being caring and sensitive as well as focusing on the individual, play an important role in creating trust and respect between the S&C coach and the athlete.
I felt like she cared about us as a whole, rather than just making us train hard. And she would ask about how university was going and if my training was ever impacting my education then she would make sure education came first. I really liked that because it seemed like she had all my best interests at heart. I could trust her a lot and had a lot of respect for her (). She was almost like a friend. (Participant #10)
The caring nature of the S&C coach, which included giving the athlete choice and respecting them as an individual by being aware of their feelings, emotions and physical condition, created trust in resulting coaching decisions, as one participant explained:
He really cared about me personally. For example, if I was feeling a little bit low, or I did not sleep well, he would still try to find a way to make the most of that session, but first he would set me aside and ask what the problem was and give me the option of training that day or not. I guess, giving me that choice really showed me he cared and made me trust in his decisions. When he did adjust the programme or aim for that session, he knew how to get the best out of me at that time and the session was always worthwhile. (Participant #3)
Coach is knowledgeable. Results further revealed that the S&C coaches scientific knowledge, as well as the ability to instruct and demonstrate that knowledge were considered by athletes to be effective characteristics of the S&C coach. Scientific knowledge helps the S&C coach to gain respect from the athlete, and build trust in what is prescribed. Interestingly, athletes linked these characteristics as operating within the boundary of trust between the athlete and the S&C coach.
My S&C coach has studied physiology at University and has the relevant qualifications and many years of experience as a coach. He has the knowledge to explain to me clearly and help me understand the theory behind what I am doing and that helps me to trust him and convinces or motivates me to do [the programme]. (Participant #6)
Coach understands role. The participants emphasised that it was important for the S&C coach to be able to clearly comprehend his coaching role by understanding the athletes sporting aims and ambition. S&C is supplementary and although it contributes to athletic performance, the degree of influences depends on the individual sport ADDIN EN.CITE Kontor1989412(Kontor, 1989)41241217Kontor, KenEDITORIAL: Defining a professionStrength & Conditioning JournalStrength & Conditioning Journal75-7511419891524-1602(Kontor, 1989). One athlete highlighted the necessity of the ability to understand the embedded role of S&C within the multifaceted technical and sports science support by responding to stage three of the vignette, where the S&C coach changes his session in favour of an actual sport session. His response demonstrated his respect for a S&C coach who could understand where his coaching fit in the full picture of the athletes training regimen.
If that was me I would be immensely grateful that my S&C coach could appreciate the priorities or my actual goal which is not S&C it is sailing, so that is kind of the overriding thing. The fact that he can appreciate this and understand that the day is favourable for sailing, optimising this by moving the session is a great thing. (Participant #8)
Coaches behaviours. This theme explores the process of how effective coaching behaviours positively contribute to the trust and respect between the S&C coach and as a result positively influence the athlete.
Coach commits. The results revealed that trust and respect of the S&C coach is essential for a long-term commitment of the athlete to the programme as trust creates safety and security within the relationship.
If I feel really happy and I really trust you, then I would like to work with you until I retire, whereas if I am not too sure or uncertain or even unhappy, I would look for another [S&C] coach. So, the trust within the relationship is important and related to the long-term factors (), but having a [S&C] coach I can trust and respect would make me feel very honoured to give 100%. I would feel safe. (Participant #5)
Additionally, one participant emphasised how the S&C coachs commitment maintained his trust and respect in the S&C coach and as a result helped him to adhere to the S&C programme even though the initial impact of the programme could have been perceived as counterproductive.
When I got a new programme [my back] would flare up for half a day and if there was anything that was too bad we would take it out but anything that was just a little bit sore we knew we could keep in and we were able to build a good idea of what was good and what wasnt in the end (...). Trusting him in that just helped me to continue with the programme and in the end the results were great. (Participant #3)
Hence, it appears to be important for S&C coaches to build a relationship with their athletes in order to get trust and respect from the athletes, not simply to expect such trust on the basis of being a knowledgeable S&C coach.
Coach motivates. The results demonstrated that the S&C coachs ability to motivate and inspire confidence is effective in adding to the trust in the relationship and the set programme. Athletes perceived that their S&C coaches who have high performance expectations and at the same time believe that the athletes can achieve those expectations helped to motivate the athletes to persevere. However, it should be noted that the effectiveness of these characteristics and behaviours are dependent on the S&C coaches knowledge of the athlete, the relationship that is built, and ultimately, the current level of trust the athlete has in the S&C coach. This is illustrated by one participants story related to stage 2 of the vignette describing a fitness test session.
I think the best example is with the aerobic tests I have to do. My S&C coach has got my fitness test scores since I was about 12 years old. So, he knows what I should and should not be capable of. He sets us very good goals beforehand and during the test he will be shouting at us which really motivates me. The goals are tailored for me, reasonable goals that I should be able to achieve, but not what he would expect the ultimate sailor to achieve, just what I personally can do. He encourages you and is positive before and during the test. (Participant #8)
Additionally, if there is no possibility created for the athlete to trust and respect the S&C coach, effective coaching characteristics such as being a good motivator might be of little use.
It is really important to get some motivation from your coach when you are getting to the end of what you think you can do, especially if you trust the [S&C] coach and he knows that you can do more. I guess that works a lot better if you have been working together for quite a long time because you would believe him a bit more. When someone who hasnt really seen you train comes up to you and says, You can just do more you would think, Youve got no basis for that. How would you know I can do more? (Participant #4)
Coach prepares and communicates. Lastly, athletes perceived that the S&C coachs abilities to communicate and plan effectively were important for them. Again, the participants suggested that effective communication and planning cannot be separated from the relational element of trust and respect. One participant suggested that effective planning and communication helped build or increase reciprocal trust and respect between the athlete and S&C coach as it demonstrated the value the coach has for the relationship.
Getting a detailed plan beforehand makes you feel good (). So the fact that your [S&C] coach appreciates that and has also invested an equivalent amount of effort to make sure you know what is going to be happening that day is really important and makes me trust him a lot more. (Participant #7)
Another participants response illustrated the effect of neglecting effective planning and communication.
() my S&C coach wont tell me what I am going to do until the very last minute. He does not have the habit to plan ahead he just gives me a rough idea but he does not make it into an action plan. He also likes to change things depending on his mood and this is something I am not very comfortable with. So I cant be prepared both mentally and physically to give 100% for every session, when I do not know what to expect. (Participant #9)
How this influences the athlete?
Athletes cognition and affect. In this theme the participants stories illustrate how the combination of sub-themes relating to what coaching characteristics and behaviours influences trust and respect impact the cognitive and affective responses of the participant.
Motivation and confidence. Results demonstrated a positive effect of trust and respect on the athletes intrinsic motivation coupled with an enhancement of self-confidence.
If you are quite trusting you are going to be more willing. You might come across to people as being more motivated. I had a lot of confidence in the training I was doing, I was really driven to absolutely maximise it. As soon as I saw that my S&C Coach put in so much effort it puts on a little bit of pressure to do it from your side as well. I was massively motivated to get the maximum out of every session because I had complete trust. (Participant #9)
It was the S&C coachs caring attitude, in which the athlete could see that he was putting effort into the training, that drove this athlete to feel motivated to excel and confident to achieve results. Further, the S&C coachs knowledge and ability to instruct helped to motivate the athlete.
The fact that he broke down the technique session and went through every exercise step by step explaining how it relates to my sport, and the fact that I trust him so much, motivates me to put in 110% effort into the session, rather than thinking why am I doing this? This is a rubbish exercise and not applicable to help my sailing performance. (Participant #1)
Enjoyment and gratitude. The participants responses to the S&C coachs ability to motivate and be positive resulted in an increase in athletes enjoyment and a decrease in anxiety. Furthermore, when the S&C coach acted in the athletes best interests by understanding his/her role as an S&C coach within the broader training environment of the athlete, the athlete felt gratitude towards the coach.
() I really appreciate the fact that my S&C coach understands what he can contribute and how he best can do that, for example by making the training session more fun in an effective efficient way, I am always a lot happier in myself and I train a lot more. (Participant #3)
One athlete elaborated how the attitude of his S&C coach positively affected his mental approach towards a difficult S&C session.
()I think given the positive attitude of the S&C coach, it tends to release apprehension of the fact that you are doing a test. If you have a positive [S&C] coach who is always speaking to you positively, it promotes relaxation and it just does not make me so anxious about difficult sessions. Ultimately, it is just very motivating and reassuring. (Participant #10)
Athletes behaviour. The last theme refers to participant stories highlighting the effect of athletes trust and respect for their S&C coach on the athletes behaviour.
Extra effort. The participants described how the S&C coachs ability to motivate them encouraged them to work harder. They also spoke of how the relationship that they had built with the S&C coach, in terms of the trust and respect they have for their S&C coach, gave them impetus to produce extra effort during their sessions.
() but because I trust and respect the [S&C] coach I want to impress him. The coachs presence makes me want to do well for me and for the coach. It is motivating and the [S&C] coachs positive comments will give me something extra, at least it gives me a little bit more patience and extra strength to give it another try instead of giving up. (Participant #5)
The S&C coachs detailed plans and the communication of those plans, linked to the athletes respect for the S&C coach and those plans, increased the athletes adherence to the session and promoted independent training. One participant recalled his feelings towards the effort and focus his S&C coach displayed.
It motivates you because you are given a very detailed session plan. She makes you want to go to the gym. I just don't want to let my coach down as I can see how much effort she has put into this relationship. So, I just want to push myself a little bit more. (Participant #6)
Clearly, the motivation that the S&C coach promoted, the positive atmosphere, and the effort shown through detailed individual plans, helped the relationship grow and influenced the athletes to put more effort into their training.
Self-regulatory processes. Lastly, the S&C coachs ability to prepare and communicate enhanced the athletes self-regulatory behaviours. Self-regulation is defined as self-generated thoughts, feelings and behaviours that are planned, monitored adapted based on performance feedback to achieve a specific goal ADDIN EN.CITE Cleary2001676(Cleary & Zimmerman, 2001)67667617Cleary, Timothy JZimmerman, Barry JSelf-regulation differences during athletic practice by experts, non-experts, and novicesJournal of Applied Sport PsychologyJournal of Applied Sport Psychology185-20613220011041-3200(Cleary & Zimmerman, 2001). In response to the trust in their S&C coachs plans and programme, the participants engaged in various actions such as ensuring the correct nutrition is applied, preparing themselves for the session (i.e. making sure the correct clothes are packed), and researching unknown exercises prior to sessions.
I will make sure I wear the right clothes and also bring the right drinks, sports drink. I would prepare my diet well in advance for that specific training. So, for example if it is an endurance session it is different from a strength training. As diet can really affect you performance I have to prepare this well in advance, probably two or three days before. My kit, however, I will prepare the night before. (Participant #7)
The athlete elaborated on the detailed plan that he trusted would be implemented that week, would help him to prepare.
Having a detailed programme is great, I can read through it, because I can read through the programme on Sunday night and go through every day of the week and I can make sure when I slot things in, set goals for the session and I can look at some of the exercises I am not sure of. So, last night I was getting the programme for this week and I was like what is this? Whats that? so I just went on the Internet and looked at some videos and thought Oh that is what it is. (Participant #4)
Overall, the results highlight the process through which coaching characteristics and behaviours influence the athletes trust and respect for their S&C coach, and how athletes perceive this process impacts on their cognitions, affect, and behaviours. The findings demonstrate the complexity of how effective S&C coach characteristics and behaviours work together to positively influence the athletes development and performance.
Discussion
The aims of this study were to understand which behaviours and characteristics of S&C coaches are effective and the resultant influences on the athletes, and to demonstrate the development and usefulness of vignettes to elicit new knowledge. To our knowledge, no previous study has explored how effective S&C coaching behaviours and characteristics influence elite athletes and there is limited research in the sports coaching literature considering how vignettes can effectively be used and further developed to enrich participants responses. This study is novel because the development of the vignette included actual quotes, thus increasing authenticity, which resulted in a greater depth of data characterised by every participant introducing their own experiences. As such, this study added to the coaching literature as well as advancing methodological approaches in various ways discussed below.
First, participants identified the importance of coach behaviours that develop trust and respect between themselves and the coach. This trust was seen to be either affective or cognitive. Affective or relational trust, developed by the mutual exhibition of care and concern, was demonstrated by participants describing their coach as being a close friend, and being sensitive, concerned and focused on the personal needs of their athletes in and outside the sporting context. These findings support previous research highlighting relational trust as essential in creating an effective relationship between the coach and athlete ADDIN EN.CITE Jowett2007398(Jowett & Poczwardowski, 2007)3983985Jowett, SophiaPoczwardowski, ArturS. Jowette D. LavalleeUnderstanding the coach-athlete relationshipSocial Psychology in Sport3-14*Athletes*Coaches*SportsInterpersonal Relationships2007Champaign, IL, USHuman Kinetics0-7360-5780-3 (Hardcover); 978-0-7360-5780-6 (Hardcover)(Jowett & Poczwardowski, 2007). Furthermore, cognitive trust, or the confidence the participant places in ability and qualifications, was demonstrated by participants emphasising the importance of the S&C coachs applied knowledge and experience ADDIN EN.CITE Mayer1995391(Mayer, Davis & Schoorman, 1995)39139117Mayer, Roger CDavis, James HSchoorman, F DavidAn integrative model of organizational trustAcademy of Management ReviewAcademy of management review709-73420319950363-7425(Mayer, Davis & Schoorman, 1995). Our findings reinforce that athlete-centred interpersonal relationships based on mutual trust, cognitive and affective, contribute to the athletes development by facilitating self-actualisation or the the best you can be ADDIN EN.CITE Rogers2012240f.ex.`,(f.ex.,Greenleaf, Gould & Dieffenbach, 2001; Rogers, 2012)2402406Rogers, CarlOn becoming a person: A therapist's view of psychotherapy2012Houghton Mifflin Harcourt054408666XGreenleaf200143543543517Greenleaf, ChristyGould, DanielDieffenbach, KristenFactors influencing Olympic performance: interviews with Atlanta and Negano US OlympiansJournal of applied sport psychologyJournal of Applied Sport Psychology154-18413220011041-3200(f.ex.,Greenleaf, Gould & Dieffenbach, 2001; Rogers, 2012).
Our findings support evidence from organisational psychology literature which has shown trust between leaders and followers is reciprocated in the form of enhanced job attitudes and performance ADDIN EN.CITE Schaubroeck2011237(Schaubroeck, Lam & Peng, 2011)23723717Schaubroeck, JohnLam, Simon SKPeng, Ann ChunyanCognition-based and affect-based trust as mediators of leader behavior influences on team performanceJournal of Applied PsychologyJournal of Applied Psychology86396420111939-1854(Schaubroeck, Lam & Peng, 2011). However, while cognitive and affective trust and respect appear to play a vital role in the context of effective S&C coaching, future research is required to more specifically explain how the different types of trust impact on elite athlete development and performance. Furthermore, from an applied perspective, research might examine how such qualities could effectively be fostered and developed by an S&C coach. The findings reinforce previous research into effective behaviours and characteristics of S&C coaches by highlighting the effectiveness of both transactional behaviours such as instruction and organisational and planning skills as well as higher order characteristics ADDIN EN.CITE Szedlak2015374(Szedlak et al., 2015)37437417Szedlak, ChrisSmith, Matthew J.Day, Melissa CGreenlees, Ian AExamining athletes perceptions of effective behaviours in strength and conditioning coachingInternational Journal of Sports Science & CoachingInternational Journal of Sports Science & Coaching967-9841052015(Szedlak et al., 2015).
Second, our findings show that the ability to effectively instruct the athlete based on scientific knowledge and to have good organisational and planning skills are essential behaviours of an S&C coach ADDIN EN.CITE Haggerty2005254(Haggerty, 2005; Massey, Schwind, Andrews & Maneval, 2009)25425432Haggerty, LeonardA profile of strength and conditioning coaches at national collegiate athletic association division II and III member institutions (Unpublished doctoral dissertation)2005East Tennessee State UniversityRetrieved from http://dc.etsu.edu/etd/1094/Massey200925725725717Massey, C DwayneSchwind, Justin JAndrews, Donnie CManeval, Mark WAn analysis of the job of strength and conditioning coach for football at the division II levelThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning ResearchThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research2493-249923920091064-8011(Haggerty, 2005; Massey, Schwind, Andrews & Maneval, 2009). Additionally, the results highlight the effectiveness of higher order characteristics such as motivation and inspiration, which have been linked with a positive effect on the athletes development and performance ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Becker, 2009; Magnusen, 2010; Szedlak et al., 2015). Our findings further support previous research ADDIN EN.CITE Chase1997283f.ex.`, (f.ex., Chase, Lirgg & Feltz, 1997)28328317Chase, Melissa ALirgg, Cathy DFeltz, DLDo coaches' efficacy expectations for their teams predict team performance?The Sport PsychologistThe Sport Psychologist8-231119970888-4781(f.ex., Chase, Lirgg & Feltz, 1997) of the impact of the coachs high performance expectations on the athlete. Of particular interest, these themes were constantly linked by the athletes themselves to trusting and respecting the coach. The athletes often felt that the coachs abilities, characteristics and expectations would have little influence on them without the coach having established trust and respect, through building a relationship with the athletes, and through that relationship demonstrating the aforementioned themes. In summary, our findings strengthen current research of the effectiveness of transactional behaviours such as instruction, but further indicate an additional positive, augmentative influence of higher order characteristics of trust and respect that go beyond the coaching effect accounted for by the transactional behaviours ADDIN EN.CITE Rowold200654(Price & Weiss, 2013; Rowold, 2006)5454017Rowold, JensTransformational and transactional leadership in martial artsJournal of Applied Sport PsychologyJournal of Applied Sport Psychology312-32518420061041-3200
1533-1571Price201325725725717Price, Melissa SWeiss, Maureen RRelationships among coach leadership, peer leadership, and adolescent athletes psychosocial and team outcomes: A test of transformational leadership theoryJournal of applied sport psychologyJournal of Applied Sport Psychology265-27925220131041-3200(Price & Weiss, 2013; Rowold, 2006).
Our results revealed that effective S&C coaching behaviours resulted in numerous positive cognitions for athletes, such as increased intrinsic motivation, enhanced self-confidence, enhanced enjoyment and decreased anxiety, which in turn have been linked with positive effects on athletes performance and well-being ADDIN EN.CITE Reinboth2006241(Reinboth & Duda, 2006)24124117Reinboth, MichaelDuda, Joan LPerceived motivational climate, need satisfaction and indices of well-being in team sports: A longitudinal perspectivePsychology of Sport and ExercisePsychology of Sport and Exercise269-2867320061469-0292(Reinboth & Duda, 2006). The data also highlight an enhancement in the participants self-regulatory process ADDIN EN.CITE Zimmerman2002392(Zimmerman, 1998, 2002)39239217Zimmerman, Barry JBecoming a self-regulated learner: An overviewTheory into PracticeTheory into practice64-7041220020040-5841Zimmerman199828628628617Zimmerman, Barry JAcademic studing and the development of personal skill: A self-regulatory perspectiveEducational psychologistEducational psychologist73-86332-319980046-1520(Zimmerman, 1998, 2002). Our results support previous research suggesting that elite athletes display a higher quality of self-regulatory processes such as self-monitoring and self-reflection, which positively affects athletic performance ADDIN EN.CITE Cleary2001676(Cleary & Zimmerman, 2001)67667617Cleary, Timothy JZimmerman, Barry JSelf-regulation differences during athletic practice by experts, non-experts, and novicesJournal of Applied Sport PsychologyJournal of Applied Sport Psychology185-20613220011041-3200(Cleary & Zimmerman, 2001). Research into physical activity has shown that behavioural compliance or adherence can be a fundamental problem ADDIN EN.CITE McAuley1993248(Garcia & King, 1991; McAuley & Courneya, 1993)24824817McAuley, EdwardCourneya, Kerry SAdherence to exercise and physical activity as health-promoting behaviors: Attitudinal and self-efficacy influencesApplied and Preventive PsychologyApplied and Preventive Psychology65-772219930962-1849Garcia199124724724717Garcia, Anne WKing, Abby CPredicting long-term adherence to aerobic exercise: A comparison of two modelsJournal of Sport and Exercise PsychologyJournal of Sport and Exercise Psychology394-4101341991(Garcia & King, 1991; McAuley & Courneya, 1993), and effective coaching behaviours that increase self-regulatory processes such as adherence and independent training need to be encouraged in the S&C context. ADDIN EN.CITE Radcliffe2013641Radcliffe et al. (2013)64164117Radcliffe, Jon NComfort, PaulFawcett, TomThe perception of psychology and the frequency of psychological strategies used by strength and conditioning practitionersThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning ResearchThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research1136-114627420131064-8011Radcliffe et al. (2013) highlighted the importance and benefits for the S&C coach to utilise these psychological strategies to encourage adherence to a training program. Additionally, Radcliffe and colleagues identified a lack of opportunity to develop such psychological skills within the professional training required to become an accredited S&C coach. Practically, our findings support Radcliffe et als (2013) and Collins and Durand-Bushs ADDIN EN.CITE Collins2014394(2014)39439417Collins, JamieDurand-Bush, NatalieStrategies used by an elite curling coach to nurture athletes self-regulation: A single case studyJournal of Applied Sport PsychologyJournal of Applied Sport Psychology211-22426220141041-3200(2014) suggestion that psychological strategies such as goal-setting, planning, focus, self-monitoring, motivation and feedback, should be considered by the S&C coach as part of a systematic attempt to instil higher levels of self-regulatory skills within the athlete . However, our findings further suggest that these psychosocial strategies can only be effective in an environment of trust and respect between the athlete and the coach.
Development of Vignette Method
A review by ADDIN EN.CITE Culver2012471Culver, Gilbert and Sparkes (2012)47147117Culver, Diane MGilbert, WadeSparkes, AndrewQualitative research in sport psychology journals: The next decade 2000-2009 and beyondThe Sport PsychologistThe Sport Psychologist261-28126220120888-4781Culver, Gilbert and Sparkes (2012) suggested that qualitative research in sport psychology lacks flexibility as it has become overly reliant on the use of semi structured interviews followed by content analysis. Thus, a narrative methodology using vignettes provides an innovative way to analyse the participant belief system within the sport coaching context ADDIN EN.CITE Smith2009359(Smith & Sparkes, 2012; Smith & Sparkes, 2009)35935917Smith, BrettSparkes, Andrew CNarrative inquiry in sport and exercise psychology: What can it mean, and why might we do it?Psychology of sport and exercisePsychology of Sport and Exercise1-1110120091469-0292Smith201225325325317Smith, BSparkes, AMaking sense of words and stories in qualitative research: Some strategies for considerationHandbook of Measurement in Sport and Exercise PsychologyHandbook of Measurement in Sport and Exercise Psychology119-1302012(Smith & Sparkes, 2012; Smith & Sparkes, 2009). There are several benefits of this methodological approach in the current study. First, utilising vignettes allowed our research team to follow Biddle, Markland, Gilbourne, Chatzisarantis and Sparkes (2001) suggestion to embrace issues of how knowledge is constructed and represented. That is, we were able to analyse athletes assumptions, interests, and procedures in working with their S&C coach, which may not have been discovered otherwise. This would lead us to a better understanding of how S&C coaches behaviours and characteristics are perceived as effective by elite athletes and furthermore how these behaviours and characteristics influence the athlete. The use of semi-structured interviews alone, without common scenarios that the athletes could use as stimulus for discussion, seems problematic when analysing athletes perceptions in relation to fluid, dynamic narratives such as their experience of effective coaching ADDIN EN.CITE Plummer2001634(Plummer, 2001)63463413Plummer, KenDocuments of Life 2: an introduction to a critical humanism2001London: Sage(Plummer, 2001). ADDIN EN.CITE Rapley2004635Rapley (2004)6356355Rapley, TSeale, CGobo, GGubrium, JSilverman, DInterviewsQualitative research practice 15-332004LondonSageRapley (2004) and ADDIN EN.CITE Sparkes2008636Sparkes and Smith (2008)63663617Sparkes, Andrew CSmith, BrettNarrative constructionist inquiryHandbook of constructionist researchHandbook of constructionist research295-31419992008Sparkes and Smith (2008) further elaborate, noting that a study that only uses interviews with direct questions does not fully allow us to understand the narratives of peoples lived, situated practices. By utilising vignettes to analyse lived experience, we ensure that the data gathered is more congruent with the narrative approach we adopted to consider what and how the athletes perceive their S&C coach to be effective.
Second, vignettes allow participants to engage more fully in considering the psychosocial elements of the coaching process, resulting in greater meaning, purpose and motivation to their psychosocial world ADDIN EN.CITE Papathomas2016631(Papathomas, 2016)6316315Papathomas, AnthonySmith, Brett MSparkes, Andrew CNarrative InquiryRoutledge handbook of qualitative research in sport and exercise2016London and New YorkTaylor & Francis1317646916(Papathomas, 2016). The vignettes reassured or allowed for greater association with the stories, and reminded the participants of experiences by prompting greater recall of the coaching process ADDIN EN.CITE Smith2015401(Smith et al., 2015)40140117Smith, BrettTomasone, Jennifer RLatimer-Cheung, Amy EMartin-Ginis, Kathleen ANarrative as a knowledge translation tool for facilitating impact: Translating physical activity knowledge to disabled people and health professionalsHealth PsychologyHealth Psychology303-31334420151433820617(Smith et al., 2015). Consequently, the participants could remember and retrieve experiences more automatically and effortlessly, as memory is predominantly story based, and they were easily drawn into discussing their subjective world within the coaching process ADDIN EN.CITE Scott2012353(Scott, Hartling, O'Leary, Archibald & Klassen, 2012)35335317Scott, Shannon DHartling, LisaO'Leary, Kathy AArchibald, MandyKlassen, Terry PStoriesa novel approach to transfer complex health information to parents: A qualitative studyArts & HealthArts & Health162-1734220121753-3015(Scott, Hartling, O'Leary, Archibald & Klassen, 2012). In summary, the stories used in the vignettes added flexibility by creating greater dialogue with participants concerning their experiences of effective coaching in a strength and conditioning environment.
Third, as suggested by Sparkes and Partington ADDIN EN.CITE Sparkes2003637(2003)63763717Sparkes, Andrew CPartington, SarahNarrative practice and its potential contribution to sport psychology: The example of flowThe Sport PsychologistThe Sport Psychologist292-31717320030888-4781(2003), a content analysis in the present study might have resulted in under-appreciating trust as a central and overarching characteristic within the data (see Figure 1). Moreover, underlying psychosocial behaviours and characteristics may have been overlooked, as direct questioning may fail to provide an adequate context to encourage further discussion ADDIN EN.CITE Culver2012471(Culver et al., 2012)47147117Culver, Diane MGilbert, WadeSparkes, AndrewQualitative research in sport psychology journals: The next decade 2000-2009 and beyondThe Sport PsychologistThe Sport Psychologist261-28126220120888-4781(Culver et al., 2012). Vignettes provide the participant with an opportunity to reflect on situations or context that they have not fully considered or routinised (Jenkins, 2010). The results of this study highlight a deeper level of consideration and reflection as the participants almost solely identified effective psychosocial behaviours and characteristics, when one might have expected a higher focus on scientific knowledge and instruction. As such, the use of vignettes has revealed the emphasis and value elite athletes place on the psychosocial aspects of S&C coaching which so far has been marginalised.
Last, we aimed to enrich the process of developing the resonance of the vignettes. When we asked the participants about the authenticity of the vignette, their responses highlighted the vignettes resonance and supported our contention that the contribution of using actual quotes strengthened the authenticity of the vignette and further enhanced the richness of data. For example, one participant said, you could quite literally exchange my name for one of the characters. Furthermore, the authenticity of the vignette was evidenced by high level of disclosure of personal and meaningful experiences during the interviews. ADDIN EN.CITE Dale2000628Dale (2000)62862817Dale, Gregory ADistractions and coping strategies of elite decathletes during their most memorable performancesThe Sport PsychologistThe Sport Psychologist17-4114120000888-4781Dale (2000) suggests the trustworthiness of narrative research is reduced if it lacks a first-person description of an experience by the participant. All participants shared and introduced their own experiences as well as responding to the vignette, using a first-person description, which was a direct result of understanding and associating with the characters and scenarios depicted in the vignette. For example, one participant responded, Yes, I could identify with all of them. It felt to me that these stories came from my own experiences. They really made me think and helped me to remember different experiences.
This study is not without its limitations. While the vignette presented to the athletes was based on real life experiences and incorporated actual quotes identified in previous research, the written presentation is only one way to prompt athletes to respond. Future research might consider different ways of vignette presentation, such as audio, video, acting and/or picture vignettes. The use of different formats would reflect the integration of technology in S&C coaching, in particular the use of video for analysis and instant feedback ADDIN EN.CITE Anning2011527(Anning, Willy & Mueller, 2011)52752717Anning, JWilly, DMueller, SThe Educational and research potential of video analysis softwareThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning ResearchThe Journal of Strength & Conditioning ResearchS5625120111064-8011(Anning, Willy & Mueller, 2011) and, as such, could enhance the potential to mobilise an empathetic and emotional response ADDIN EN.CITE Douglas2008524(Douglas & Carless, 2008)52452417Douglas, KitrinaCarless, DavidUsing stories in coach educationInternational Journal of Sports Science & CoachingInternational Journal of Sports Science & Coaching33-493120081747-9541(Douglas & Carless, 2008). Additionally, to utilise the flexibility of the vignette approach, ADDIN EN.CITE Smith2015401Smith et al. (2015)40140117Smith, BrettTomasone, Jennifer RLatimer-Cheung, Amy EMartin-Ginis, Kathleen ANarrative as a knowledge translation tool for facilitating impact: Translating physical activity knowledge to disabled people and health professionalsHealth PsychologyHealth Psychology303-31334420151433820617Smith et al. (2015) provided initial support of the utility of vignettes as a tool to disseminate physical activity knowledge to adults with spinal cord injury. S&C, as an emergent profession, could utilise the vignettes to disseminate effective and/or ineffective coaching practises for S&C coaches to reflect upon experiences that they might not have had before. The vignettes could be used to accelerate coach development, especially for novice S&C coaches who lack experience in relating to and working with elite athletes. This process would encourage the coach to self-reflect and identify individual areas of good practice and improvements needed to reach full potential in their coaching roles.
Conclusion
This study focused on effective behaviours and characteristics of S&C coaches and their influences as perceived by elite athletes in response to a vignette. Athletes identified the importance of psychosocial behaviours or higher order and characteristics and their interactions, emphasising the important role of trust and respect within the relationship between the coach and athlete. Practically, this study informs practitioners of the importance of further developing characteristics such as trust and respect in conjunction with previously identified effective behaviours such as instruction, motivation and inspiration to positively influence athletes behaviour and performance. In addition, the results should be considered as a prompt to current S&C accreditation bodies such as the UKSCA to further enhance the non-technical aspect of their coaching curriculum. One such example could be the inclusion of mentorship programmes, where novice coaches are guided by more senior coaches in areas such as initiating and maintaining trust and developing a motivational climate. Finally, the study offers further evidence of the effectiveness of the vignette method in eliciting greater depth of data. Future recommendation of the application of the vignette method applied to the context of S&C coaching should incorporate the use of vignettes to disseminate research of effective and ineffective coaching scenarios to S&C coaches, acting as an educational tool.
Appendix A. Supplemantary data
Themes included in developing the vignette stages
StageThemeActual quote1 Relatedness & closeness
Authenticity & sincerity
Role modelI always feel that I can trust Rob and I can actually tell him when I have a problem, and I have a lot of respect for him and I really look up to him. He is just a genuine guy2Confidence
High performance expectations,
Belief in athlete Rob was like one more, one more and he kept going. I ended up with 36 press ups, it was as if he knew how strong I was.
I guess the whole can do attitude that he has and that he will not let us fail makes the session bearable.
I guess he really believed in me and my ability.3InstructionRob was so knowledgeable, it made me feel I could trust him even if I did not understand the science behind it.
Starting off with just the movement and breaking it down every single rea really helped. 4Communication skills
Planning & organisation
The session are so well thought out and run according to plan that Rob sets up, it kind of really motivates me because means that I have a purpose for the session.5Feedback
Motivation & inspiration
It looked to me that Rob was happy and full of praise for your effort. He was always saying positive things to you. I remember when he does that to me, it really encourages me. Also, I know that if you do not perform Rob would let you know about it and spur you on.
He kind of makes me want to go to the gym and I like it when he says after the first set that I can beat my target. The vignette: Emmas story; international sailor
Stage 1
Emma is a 19 years old, international sailing athlete in the laser radial class, a single handed sailing dinghy. She has also just started at University to study ship sciences. She is currently attending a national squad camp. During the camp the athletes attend strength and conditioning session in the performance gym after and before the sailing sessions on the water. Emma just finished her evening S&C session when she met one of her friends in the gym, Frances. As they started talking about the training day their conversation quickly moved towards their evening S&C session. How was your session? asked Frances. Tiring but good replied Emma. How was yours? asked Emma. Frances paused Really challenging, Rob (the S&C coach) changed the programme today and I did not quite get it at first?. That must have been difficult!, Emma replied. It was Ok, I always feel that I can trust Rob and I can actually tell him when I have a problem, and I have a lot of respect for him and I really look up to him. He is just a genuine guy. Frances replied.
Stage 2
Emma started the cool down and stretch, when another friend, Pete, an experienced sailor part of the performance group, came to join her. They started to talk about the days event and how the sailing went. As they continued Pete asked her what her schedule was for the next day. Emma replied Oh we have got fitness testing in the morning, I am not looking forward to it. Pete responded I quite like it, this morning during my testing Rob was like one more, one more and he kept going. I ended up with 36 press ups, it was as if he knew how strong I was. Emma replied Wow, yeah, I guess the whole can-do attitude that he has and that he will not let us fail makes the session bearable. Emma paused and added I guess he really believes in me and my ability. They finished off the stretching and hurried to get some dinner.
Stage 3
It as an early start the next morning and Emma still felt tired from the day before. As the wind was favourable for the day Rob, the S&C coach, and the sports science support staff decided to postpone the testing session but schedule a technique lifting session in for the evening. After Emma came off the water she and her close friend, Pauline, also an international dingy sailor, got ready to go the scheduled session. After a quick warm up Rob introduced the exercises and took them through the individual lifts. The session flew past, as Pauline remarked: That went quick, I am glad this was just a technique session, I am still bruised from our water session! Yes, I kind of learned a lot though. I never managed to do some of those lifts before, especially the clean. I did not even know why I should be doing this. Emma replied. Rob was so knowledgeable, it made me feel I could trust him even if I did not understand the science behind it. Pauline added. Starting off with just the movement and breaking it down every single area really helped. Emma answered.
Stage 4
Emma and Pauline left the gym to go to their rooms, trying to have an early night to prepare for the final day. The testing was rescheduled for the following morning. After breakfast, Emma and the squad walked over to the performance gym. Emma asked Pauline: Do you know what is going on this morning and what tests we are doing? Pauline replied: Yes we got sent a detailed programme of all the tests. The session are so well thought out and run according to plan that Rob sets up, it kind of really motivates me because means that I have a purpose for the session..
Stage 5
Emma felt exhausted, slightly under the weather, before the session started. However, the testing session went well. Emma exceeded her targets but still was not pleased with her performance as she believed that she could have done even better if she would have felt totally fit. Pete observed the session and started to talk to Emma afterwards. You did well Emma. He said. I could have done better, I guess. Emma replied. It looked to me that Rob was happy and full of praise for your effort. He was always saying positive thing to you. I remember when he does that to me, it really encourages me. Also, I know that if you do not perform Rob would let you know about it and spur you on. Pete added. I guess you are right, that is probably the reason I did well. He kind of makes me want to go to the gym and I like it when he says after the first set that I can beat my target. Emma replied.
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